Principles op 

English Grammar 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 



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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



PRINCIPLES 



OF 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

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USED BY THE 

BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS 



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New York 

WILLIAM H. SADLIER 

ii Barclay Street 



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fit* 



Entered According to Act of Congress, in the year 1890, by 

JOHN P. MURPHY, 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 

.■■'■'• 



PREFACE. 



The present text-book attempts to combine theory with 
practice. It aims at putting English Grammar on a scien- 
tific basis. With this view, it has not lost sight of the Old 
English in which our language is rooted, and of the various 
stages through which our language has passed in the pro- 
cess of its growth and development. 

We are too prone to forget that the English now spoken 
and written has come to us in its present form, with all its 
flexibility and power of expression, through many stages in 
which idioms and terms struggled for existence ; that 
where one expression has survived, hundreds have been de- 
stroyed ; that the present forms of words and phrases and 
idioms are intelligible to us only through their past history ; 
and that it is only in a study of the nature and genius of 
our own language throughout the course of its growth and 
development that we 'can steer clear of foisting upon it 
rules and laws that are foreign to its whole spirit. 

Grammar is profitable in proportion as it initiates the 
pupil into familiar acquaintance with the rules and prin- 
ciples governing the construction of the language. How 

may this be best effected ? — The pupil begins by learning 
iii 



IV PREFACE. 

the nature and functions of the various classes of words 
that enter into a sentence. He next learns how to analyze 
and parse a sentence. He gradually becomes familiar with 
the forms that are of best usage in the present stage of the 
language. Parsing and the analysis of sentences are useful 
in so far as they help the pupil to acquire familiarity with 
correct forms, and no farther. Therefore, the most definite 
rule for the study of Grammar which we can lay down is 
this : Ground the pupil slowly, carefully, and thoroughly 
in the principles and rules regulating the classification, 
government, and relation of words, and then show him how 
admirably these principles and rules have been applied by 
the best models of pure English. Hand in hand with the 
grammar should go the spelling-book, the dictionary, and 
the reading-book, containing the best models, and furnish- 
ing the pupil with ideas which he should recast in his own 
words. The pupil should be accustomed to use correct 
grammatical expressions in his remarks and recitations, and 
to write correct grammatical sentences in his compositions. 
It is only by such practice, kept up during years of thought- 
ful study, that the pupil will be enabled to make profitable 
the study of Grammar as here given. 

After the rules and principles of Grammar have been 
fairly mastered, it is of small avail to spend several hours a 
week in the merely mechanical drill-work of correcting 
false syntax and parsing sentences. For this reason, it has 
been deemed best not to overcrowd the pages of Syntax 



PREFACE. V 

with exercises for parsing. The examples given under each 
rule will be found sufficient for the purpose. The pupils' 
time were far more profitably employed in constructing 
sentences according to models of good English. 

In the following pages we have practically carried out 
our method as laid down in the Management of Christian 
Schools (Chapter ix., pp. 73-84). 

June 29, 1890. 



CONTENTS. 



Introduction 



PAGE 

- 1 



PART I.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Chapter I. Letters : Their Origin and Formation 

Chapter II. Letters: Capitals - 

Chapter III. Letters: Italics - - - - 

Chapter IV. Words ------ 



3 
6 
8 
9 



PART II.— ETYMOLOGY. 

Chapter I. The Parts of Speech Denned - 12 

Chapter II. Parsing -- 13 

Chapter III. Nouns 15 

I. Classes of Nouns 15 

Exercises 16 

II. Person 18 

III. Number 18 

Exercises ------- 22 

IV. Gender 25 

1. Different Words c 26 

2. Suffixes 26 

3. Composition of Words 27 

4. Personification 27 

Exercises 28 

V. Case 28 

VI. Declension ------ 31 

Exercises -----.-31 

Chapter IV. Articles 34 

Exercises 35 

Chapter V. Adjectives ------- 35 

I. Classes of Adjectives 35 

Exercises 36 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

II. Comparison of Adjectives 39 

III. Irregular Comparisons - - - - - 40 

Exercises 42 

Chapter YI. Pronouns 43 

I. Personal Pronouns - 43 
Declension of the Simple Personal Pro- 
nouns 44 

II. Relative Pronouns - - - - - 45 

III. Demonstrative Pronouns - 47 

IV. Interrogative Pronouns - - - - 47 
Exercises ------- 48 

Chapter VII. Analysis of Sentences - - - - - 51 

I. Classification of Sentences as to Meaning - 51 

II. Principal Parts of Sentences - - - - 52 

III. Adjuncts - 55 

IV. Phrases 56 

■ V. Principal Words and their Modifiers - 58 

Exercises for Analysis - - - - 60 

1. Simple Sentences - 60 

2. Secondary Modifiers - - - - 61 

3. Substantive Phrases - 63 

4. Adjective Phrases 64 

5. Adverbial Phrases - - - - 64 

6. Explanatory and Independent Phrases - 65 

7. Complex Phrases 65 

8. Compound Phrases - - - - - 65 

9. Imperative, Interrogative, and Exclama- 

tory Sentences 66 

Chapter VIII. Sentence-Building : Its Nature 67 

Exercises 69 

Chapter IX. Verbs - 74 

I. Classification of Verbs as to Form - - 75 

II. Classification of Verbs as to Meaning - 76 

III. Modification of Verbs - - - - " - 77 

Voice 77 

Mood - - ' 78 

Tense 80 

Number and Person 81 

IV. Conjugation of Verbs - - - 82 

Auxiliary Verbs 82 

Forms of Conjugation ... - 83 



CONTENTS. IX 

PAGE 

V. Conjugation of the Verb Have - - - 85 
VI. Conjugation of the Verb Be 88 

VII. Conjugation of the Transitive Verb Love : 

Active Voice 90 

VIII. Conjugation of the Transitive Verb Love : 

Passive Voice - - - - - 93 

IX. Progressive Form of the Verb Study - - 96 

Remarks on the Conjugations 98 

Exercises - - - - , - - - 100 

X. Irregular Verbs 107 

1. Verbs that vary in all three parts - - 108 

2. Verbs whose Imperfect Tense and Perfect 

Participle are alike - - - 110 

3. Verbs both regular and irregular in their 

principal parts - - - - -112 

XI. Defective Verbs 114 

Exercises ------- 117 

XII. Infinitives - 119 

Exercises - 120 

XIII. Participles - - - - - - 121 

Exercises ------- 122 

Chapter X. Adverbs - - - - - - 123 

I. Classification of Adverbs - - - - 124 

II. Modification of Adverbs - 127 

III. Functions of Adverbs ----- 129 

Exercises 130 

Chapter XI. Prepositions - - - - - - - 131 

List of Prepositions 132 

Exercises 135 

Chapter XII. Conjunctions 136 

Exercises - 139 

Chapter XIII. Interjections 140 

Exercises 141 

Chapter XIV. Words Used in Various Senses - 143 

Chapter XV. Analysis of Complex Sentences - 151 

Classification of Sentences as to Form - 151 

Models for the Analyzing of Complex and 

Compound Sentences - 155 

Exercises 156 

Chapter XVI. Sentence-Building: Rules - - - - , - 158 
Exercises 163 



CONTENTS. 



Chapter 


I. 


Chapter 


II. 


Chapter 


III. 


Chapter 


IV. 


Chapter 


V. 


Chapter 


VI. 


Chapter 


VII. 


Chapter 


VIII. 


Chapter 


IX. 


Chapter 


X. 


Chapter 


XI. 



Chapter 
Chapter 



I. 
II. 



Chapter 
Chapter 



III. 
IV. 



PART III.— SYNTAX. 

PAGE 

Subject and Verb 166 

The Verb 170 

The Noun - - 179 

The Pronoun - 182 

The Article - 193 

The Adjective ------ 197 

The Adverb -204 

The Preposition - 209 

The Conjunction 212 

The Interjection - . - - - - -214 
Idiom 215 

PART IV.— PROSODY. 

Definitions 224 

Punctuation - 228 

I. The Period ------- 228 

II. The Colon 229 

III. The Semicolon 230 

IV. The Comma ------ 231 

V. The Interrogation and Exclamation Points - 233 

VI. Dash, Hyphen, Parenthesis, Brackets, Quo- 
tation Points ----- 233 
Versification - - - - - - - 236 

Rhythm in Prose 244 

Extracts for Rhythmic Analysis - - - 252 



PRINCIPLES 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



INTRODUCTION. 



1. Grammar is the science of the elementary forms of 
language and of their relations to one another. 

2. The elementary forms of language are the various 
parts of speech, idioms, and phrases of which the language 
is composed. 

3. Language is the expression of thought by means of 
words. 

4. Words may be either spoken or written, and are sub- 
ject to certain rules. 

5. The rules relating to the combining of letters and 
sounds are known as Orthography. 

6. The rules relating to the classifying and modifying of 
words are known as Etymology. 

7. The rules relating to the agreement and government 
of words in a sentence are known as Syntax. 

8. The rules relating to the rhythm and harmony of 
words in verse and prose are known as Prosody. 



2 INTRODUCTION. 

9. These four subjects — Orthography, Etymology/ Syn- 
tax, and Prosody — constitute the four principal divisions of 
Grammar. 

10. English Grammar is here treated in the order of 
these divisions. Under each heading are stated the prin- 
ciples and laws governing words, phrases, and idioms as 
used by the best writers. 

"Grammar," says Cardinal Newman, "is the scientific analysis of 
language, and to be conversant with it, as regards a particular lan- 
guage, is to be able to understand the meaning and force of that 
language when thrown into sentences and paragraphs" {Idea of a 
University, p. 334). Grammar is a science rather than an art, because 
its object is to classify words and lay down rules and principles of 
speech. 

The student must bear in mind that the English language has a 
history in which its growth and its variations are recorded. The forms 
of good English to-day were not the forms of good English three hun- 
dred years ago, nor will they be the same three hundred years hence. 
The grammarian has no voice in imposing these forms upon the 
language. He is powerless to change them if he would. His province 
is simply to arrange and classify them and to account for them as best 
he may. 



PART I. 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 



CHAPTER I. 

LETTERS : THEIR ORIGIN AND FORMATION. 

1. Orthography treats of letters and sounds. 

2. Letters are certain signs invented to represent certain 
vocal sounds. 

Thoughts were first represented by pictures ; from these pictures, as 
used in Egypt in the distant past, the letters of the English language 
have been derived. 

3. Vocal sounds are produced by the organs of speech. 

4. The organs of speech are the tongue, the throat, 
the palate, the teeth, the lips, and the nose. 

(1) Sounds formed by the throat are called gutturals. Such is 
the sound of g in gain, or k in keep. 

(2) Sounds formed by the tongue and palate are called palatals. 
Such is the sound of j in join. 

(3) Sounds formed by the tongue and teeth are called dentals. 
Such is the sound of d in done. 

(4) Sounds formed by the lips are called labials. Such is the 
sound of b in bad, or p in paid. 

(5) Sounds formed by causing the breath to pass through the 
nose are called nasals. Such is the sound of ng in sing. 



4 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

(6) Hissing sounds formed by the tongue and teeth and the 
tongue and palate are called sibilants. Such are the sounds 
of z in prize, and s in sure. 

5. Letters are divided according to the organs of speech 
employed in expressing their sounds. 

6. In English there are twenty-six letters. These letters 
are divided into vowels and consonants. 

7. A vowel is an open sound. It is formed by the act 
of breathing upon the vocal chords. 

8. There are five vowels ; namely, a, e, i, o, u. Of these, 
three are primary, and two are derived. 

9. The three primary vowels are a as sounded in far, 
i as sounded in bit, and u as sounded in full 

10. The two derived vowels are e as sounded in obey, 
which is composed of the vowels a and i ; and o as sounded 
in note, which is composed of the vowels a and u. 

11. The union of two vowels representing a single sound 
is called a diphthong. 

12. A consonant is a sound produced by direct contact 
of particular organs of speech. 

13. There are nineteen consonants. These may be 
divided as follows : 

(1) Labials : b, v, w, m, p, f. These six letters represent the 
elementary lip-sounds. 

(2) Dentals : d, t, n. These three letters represent the ele- 
mentary teeth-sounds. 

(3) Gutturals : h, k, and g hard, as in the word gain. These 
three letters represent the elementary throat-sounds. 

(4) Linguals : 1, r. These two letters are sometimes called trill- 
sounds. They are formed by the tongue and palate. 

(5) Palatals : j, y. These are also formed by the tongue and 
palate. 



LETTERS I THEIR ORIGIN AND FORMATION. 5 

(6) Sibilants : s, z. These are formed by a hissing sound of 
the tongue and palate. 

(7) The consonant c has the sound of s or h, q has the sound of 
Tcu, and x has the the sound of ks. 

14. The letters w and y have consonant-sounds at the 
beginning of a word or syllable, and vowel-sounds at the 
end of a word or syllable ; as, ive, ye ; new, try. 

15. Words change in form with the growth of a lan- 
guage. This is due to a change in sound. Change in 
sound is carried on in every language according to certain 
fixed laws. 

16. The general drift of language, through all stages 
of its growth, is to shorten words. Thus we say none for no 
one, don't for do not, don for do on. 

17. The change in words effects a change in the letters 
composing the words. This change also is subject to a 
fixed law. 

18. The most general law of change in letters is this : 
Letters pronounced by the same organs may be interchanged. 

Thus the flat labial b may become the sharp labial p, as from ab- 
sorb is derived absorption ; the flat dental d may become the sharp 
dental t, as clasped is reduced to claspt, or passed to past . 

19. Sometimes there is an interchange between letters 
formed by different parts of the same organs ; for ex- 
ample, the guttural k, which is formed by the palate and 
tongue near the throat, may become the palatal ch, which 
is formed by the palate and tongue near the teeth. 

Thus has the old English word die become the modern English word 
ditch, and the old English wicce is now pronounced witch. So the 
guttural g in brycg has been softened in our word bridge. In Lowland 
Scotch the word is still called bryg. 



6 OKTHOGKAPHY. 

20. Sometimes the change in sound is effected by the 
transposition of letters. 

Thus the old English not only said three, but they derived from it 
the word thrid, which we now pronounce third, and their word lipsed 
has become our lisped, 

21. Sometimes letters are dropped out of a word. 

Thus the olden form maked has now come to be spelled made ; and 
what was once haves has now become has. So lad in one stage of the 
language had for its feminine lad-ess, whence we derive the word lass. 

22. Sometimes a dental becomes assimilated with, or 
absorbed into, a following sibilant. 

Thus where the old English said godspel we say gospel, and our 
modern Essex was once spelled Estsex. 

23. Sometimes the sibilants s, z, and the liquid r in- 
terchange. 

Thus where we say forlorn the old English said forlosen, and where 
we say frozen they said froren. Milton uses the word frore for frozen : 

— " The parching air 
Burns frore, and cold performs th' effect of five."— Paradise Lost. 



CHAPTER II. 

LETTERS: CAPITALS. 



Letters are either small or capital. The body of a 
printed page is generally given in small uniform letters. 
As exceptions to this practice we find some words beginning 
with capital letters and some words written in italics. 
There are certain rules governing this arrangement. We 
will begin with capitals : 



letters: capitals. 7 

1. The first word of every sentence should begin with a 
capital letter. 

2. The first word in every line of poetry should begin 
with a capital letter ; as, 

That music breathes all through my spirit, 

As the breezes blow through a tree ; 
And my soul gives light, as it quivers 

Like moons on a tremulous sea. — Faber. 

3. The first word of a direct quotation should begin 
with a capital letter; as, Dora said, "My uncle took the 
toy." 

4. The personal pronoun I, the interjection 0, and 
single letters forming abbreviations of proper names, 
should be capital letters. 

5. Proper names should always begin with capitals ; 
as, Alice, William, George Washington, The United States, 
Sioeden. 

6. Under this rule fall the names of the days and of 
the months, which take capitals ; but not those of the 
seasons, which take small letters. 

7. Titles of honor and distinction should begin with 
capitals ; as, Dr. Johnson, Charles the Bold, Hon. W. E. 
Gladstone. 

8. Names of the Deity should begin with capitals ; as, 
The Father, the Son, the Holy Ghost, God, Providence, the 
Almighty. 

9. So also should pronouns referring to the Deity begin 
with capitals ; as, 

Oh, make Thou us through centuries long, 
In peace secure, in justice strong. 

Whittier, Centennial Hymn, 1889. 



8 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Some authors would write all pronouns with small letters. But 
too great respect cannot be shown to the name of the Supreme Being, 
even in print. 

10. Adjectives derived from proper names should be- 
gin with capitals ; as, American, Elizabethan English, 
Johnsonian style. 

11. Certain words, derived from proper names, have be- 
come part of the language as verbs or common nouns, and 
are written with small letters ; such as gerrymander, 
boycott, buncombe, lynch, burke, galvanism, mesmerism; 
also the words roman and italics, applied to type. 

12. Personified objects may begin with capitals ; as, 

4 'Come, gentle Spring ! ethereal Mildness, come." — Thomson. 

13. Emphatic words may begin with capitals ; as, 

"The evidence of History, I say, is invaluable in its place ; but if 
it assumes to be the sole means of gaining Religious Truth, it goes 
beyond its place." — Card. Newman. Here the words History and 
Religious Truth are emphasized. 



CHAPTER III. 

LETTERS: ITALICS. 

I. Emphatic words, phrases, and clauses are sometimes 
printed in italics. 

(1) Emphatic words : as, "When bloivs have made me stay, I 
fled from words" 

(2) Emphatic phrases: as, "A mere string of sentences is not 
a composition." 

(3) Emphatic clauses: as, "I could not have done it, unless 
you had helped." 



WORDS. 9 

2. Italics help to make the sense of a sentence clear ; 
but it is desirable that in composition the least possible 
number of words be italicized. 

3. Words borrowed from foreign languages should be 
put in italics: as, "Venturing upon really extempore 
matter." 

It is advisable to employ the fewest possible foreign words in Eng- 
lish composition. What cannot be expressed in English words can 
scarcely find a responsive idea in the ordinary English-speaking mind. 

4. The names of books, newspapers, periodicals, and 

ships are usually printed in italics ; as, 

Cardinal Wiseman wrote Fabiola; The Catholic World is a 
monthly magazine ; John Hassard was literary critic for The Trib- 
une ; Robert sailed on the City of Paris. 

5. Italicized words in the Old Testament and the 
New are words introduced by the translators to render the 
sense intelligible to the English reader. They are generally 
words having no equivalent in the original Greek or Hebrew. 



CHAPTER IV. 

WORDS. 



1. Words are sounds possessing a distinct meaning. 
They may be of one or more syllables. 

2. A syllable is one or more letters, one at least being a 
vowel, sounded in a single breath ; as, man, bad-ly. 

3. A word of one syllable is a monosyllable ; a word of 
two, is a dissyllable ; a word of three, is a trisyllable ; a 
word of more than three, is a polysyllable. 



10 OKTHOGRAPHY. 

4. Words are either primitive, derivative, or com- 
pound. 

5. A primitive word is a root-word, or a primary sound 
representing an idea ; as, mind. It is the last form to 
which a word may be traced. 

6. A derivative word is a word derived from a root-word 
by the addition of one or more syllables ; as, mindful, un- 
mindful. 

7. A compound word is a word formed by the union of 
two or more words. The words may be primitive, as, hat- 
box; ill-will ; or they may be derivative, as, poverty- 
stricken. 

8. From root-words other words may be formed by 
adding prefixes or suffixes. 

9. The prefix is a syllable placed before the root-word ; 
as, ve-mind. 

10. The suffix is a syllable placed after the root-word ; 
as, tliouglit-ful. 

1 1 . Both prefixes and suffixes may consist of more than 
one syllable. 

12. Words of more than one syllable are accented. 

13. Accent is the stress of voice placed upon a particular 
syllable in a word. 

14. Correct accent is essential to correct pronuncia- 
tion. 

15. Correct pronunciation follows the usage of the 
best speakers. The dictionary is supposed to give the best 
usage, but sometimes custom prevails over the authority of 
the dictionary. Each age has its own mode of pronouncing 
words. For instance, in Pope's time our word tea was pro- 
nounced tay. Thus he writes : 



WORDS. 11 

Here thou, great Anna ! whom three realms obey, 
Dost sometimes counsel take — and sometimes tea. 

— Rape of the Lock. 

So was the word sea pronounced say. Thug Cowper 

wrote : 

"lam monarch of all I survey, 

My right there is none to dispute; 

From the centre all round to the sea 

I am lord of the fowl and the brute." 

— Alexander Selkirk. 

In Shakespeare's day the word Rome was pronounced 
room. Hence the line : 

" Now is it Rome indeed and room enough." — Julius C^sar. 

16. Words should also be correctly spelled. 

Correct spelling is difficult in the English language, owing to the 
fact that the language contains forty-three primary sounds and only 
twenty-three available letters in which to express them. Still, correct 
spelling is an essential part of education. 

Some rules for spelling may be laid down, but correct spelling is 
chiefly acquired by practice. For rules of spelling, see the Brothers' 
Pronouncing Speller, pp. 93-98. 



PART II. 
ETYMOLOGY. 



1. Etymology in grammar treats of the classification 
and modification of words. 

2. Words, in English, are divided into nine classes, 
called parts of speech ; namely, the noun, the article, 
the adjective, the pronoun, the verb, the advert), the prep- 
osition, the conjunction, and the interjection. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE PARTS OF SPEECH DEFINED. 

1. A noun is a word used as a name ; as, James, 
horse, New York, school, water, soul. 

2. An article is a word used to determine the sense in 
which a noun is taken ; as, The school, a man, an^eye. 

3. An adjective is a word used to qualify or describe a 
noun or pronoun; as, A qood apple; five diligent 
boys ; unhappy me. 

4. A pronoun is a word that stands for a noun ; as, 
Frank loves his book, he has long lessons, and he learns 
them well. 



PARSING. 13 

5. A verb is a word that expresses being, action, or the 
being acted upon ; as, God is ; William spells a word ; 
the wind blows ; the general was wounded. 

6. An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of 
a verb, an adjective, or another adverb ; as, Summer is 
here ; quickly it comes, and as quickly goes. 

7. A preposition is a word used to express the relation 
between an object and a preceding name, state, or action ; 
as, He went from New York to Baltimore ; — Henry has 
come for me. 

8. A conjunction is a word used to join sentences or the 
elements of a sentence ; as, He is patient and happy, 
because he is a good Christian. 

9. An interjection is a word used to express emotion ; as, 
Oh! alas! 



CHAPTER II. 

PARSING. 



1. Parsing is the explaining of the functions and rela- 
tions of words in a sentence, according to the rules and 
definitions of grammar. 

2. A sentence is a combination of words expressing a 
complete thought. 

3. The essential part of every sentence is the verb, ex- 
pressed or understood. 

4. A sentence may express : 

(1) An assertion ; as, God is love. — Thomas has not studied. 

(2) An interrogation ; as, Does history always reveal the truth? 

(3) A command ; as, Honor the Light Brigade. 

(4) An entreaty; as, Lead, kindly light! . . . Keep Thou my feet. 



14 ETYMOLOGY. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



Example 1. — The fire burns. 
Fire is a noun, because it is a name. 

The is an article, because it determines the definite sense in which 
the noun fire is taken. 

Burns is a verb, because it expresses action. 

/. — Name in the following sentences the noun, the article, 
and the verb, and parse each as in the example : 

1. Longfellow wrote Evangeline. — 2. The flowers bloom. — 3. The 
ship sailed. — 4. The moon shines. — 5. James studies history. — 6. An- 
drew reads. — 7. The boy told an untruth. — 8. Birds build nests. — 9. 
The horse is a quadruped. 

Example 2. — A good boy obeys his parents. 

Good is an adjective, because it expresses the quality of the noun boy. 

His is a pronoun, because it stands for the noun boy. 

II. — Point out the noun, the article, the adjective, the 
pronoun, and the verb, in the folloiving sentences, and parse 
each as in the first and second examples : 

1. Beaumont and Fletcher wrote plays conjointly. — 2. Mary learns 
her lessons. — 3. A cheerful temper is a great blessing. — i. They disre- 
gard their teachers. — 5. Boys are heedless. — 6. Shakespeare lived in 
the reign of Queen Elizabeth. — 7. An idle scholar is no credit to his 
teacher. — 8. A noble mind scorns a mean action. — 9. Milton wrote 
Paradise Lost. — 10. Washington was a true patriot. 

Example 3. — Alas ! how we miss the hind words and the gentle 
touch of our dear mother ! 

How is an adverb, because it modifies the verb miss. 

Of is a preposition, because it expresses the relation of the object 
mother to the preceding nouns touch and words. 

And is a conjunction, because it connects the nouns words and touch. 

Alas is an interjection, because it expresses an emotion. 



NOUNS. 15 

IIL — Distinguish the parts of speech in the following 
sentences, and parse each as in the first, second, and third 
examples : 

1. Shakespeare is the greatest dramatic poet in the world. — 2. The 
rose is a beautiful and fragrant flower. — 3. The good scholar attends 
diligeDtly and carefully to his lessons. — 4. Candor, sincerity, and truth 
are amiable qualities. — 5. Emerson was a great New England writer. — 
6. A peach, an apple, a pear, or an orange is very delicious. — 7. Men live 
and die, but God lives forever. — 8. Alas ! how unfortunate he is ! — 9. 
Whittier is known as the Quaker Poet. 



CHAPTER III. 

NOUNS. 
I.— CLASSES OF NOUNS. 

1. A noun is a word used as a name. 

2. A name may include many things of the same class,, 
when it is called common ; as, man, boy, book. These 
words are known as common nouns. 

3. A name may refer to some particular person or 
place, when it is called proper ; as, John, Baltimore, 
Ireland, America. These words are known as proper 
nouns. 

4. Two or more words forming a proper name are treated 
as a single word ; as, John Henry Newman, Jersey City. 
They are parsed as compound proper nouns. 

5. Common nouns may be sub-divided as follows : 

(1) The compound noun. — This is a common name formed of 
two or more words joined together; as, silversmith, spoonful, 
man-of-war, father-in-law. 



16 



ETYMOLOGY. 



(2) The collective noun. — This is a common name denoting a 
collection of many individuals ; as, family, meeting, flock, 
swarm. 

(3) The abstract noun. — This is the common name of a qual- 
ity, considered apart from its substance ; as, goodness, hard- 
ness. 

(4) The participial noun. — This is a common name derived 
from the verb, and retaining the participial form ; as, read- 
ing, writing. Here the word reading is derived from the 
verb to read, and retains the form of the present participle, 
reading. 

EXERCISES. 

I. Indicate orally, or by means of the letters pr., a., pi., 
th., if the noun is the name of a person, an animal, a place, 
or a thing : 



grass t. 


2. king pr. 


3i tiger a. 


4. 


Albany pi, 


shepherd 


hill 


flag 




fire 


prairie 


turf 


wood 




baker 


lion 


crown 


huntsman 




kiln 


collar 


Washington 


lead 




mouse 



77. Tell whether the proper noun indicates the name of a 
person, or a place. Put pr. for person, pi. for place : 



1. Venice pi. 


2. Margaret pr. 


3. Newark 


4. Cork 


St. Louis 


Liverpool 


Montreal 


Francis 


Andrew 


Brooklyn 


Edward 


Teresa 



III. Insert one or other of the folloioing words before the 
most appropriate quality or attribute: 

1. Wax, grass, glass, gold, yeast. 

2. Cake, water, iron, steel, winter. 

3. Apple, leather, rain, vinegar, poison. 

4. Gas, copper, beef, silver, bronze. 



NOUNS'. 



17 



is yellow, 
is pliable. 



1. Wax is soft. is green. is brittle. 

leavens dough. 

2. is sweet. is liquid. is hard. 

is cold. 

3. are wholesome. is tough. is useful. is 

sour. is dangerous. 

4. illumines. is malleable. is nourishing. is 

shining. is a metal. 

IV. State to tvhat particular class each of the following 
nouns belongs : 



1. hardness, 


ab. 


2. pailful, cd. 


3. herd, col. 


4. sister-in-law 


body 




iniquity 


water 


penmanship 


society 




singing 


generosity 


humility 


soul 




goldsmith 


writing 


riding 


virtue 




glassful 


moon 


congregation 



V. Classify the nouns in the following sentences, stating 

to what general or particular class each of them belongs : 

* 

1. The Jews are scattered over the whole world. — 2. Luke's family 
went to Boston last month. — 3. Paris, the capital of France, is situated 
on the river Seine. — 4. The convention was held at Chicago, a city in 
the State of Illinois. — 5. Milton lived in the seventeenth century. — 6. 
" the blasting of the fever." — Longfellow. 



VI. Form abstract nouns from the following words , 



broad, breadth; black ; bright ; clear- 
est ; good ; high ; long ; true- 

uous . 



-; rapid- 
-; wide- 



hon- 
virt- 



VII Write four sentences, each containing a common 
noun;— four, each containing a proper noun; — three, 
each containing a compound noun ; — two, each containing 
a collective noun ; — tivo, each containing an abstract 
noun ; — two, each containing a participial noun. 



18 ETYMOLOGY. 

VIII. Write three sentences bearing relation to one 
another, and containing the nouns mother, love, sojst, 

HAPPINESS. 

If the sentences so written contain a central idea ; that is, if they 
all treat of a single subject, they are called a composition. 

II.— PERSON. 

6. To nouns belong person, number, gender, and case. 

7. Person varies according as the noun is the name of 
the speaker or writer, the person or thing addressed, or the 
person or thing spoken of. 

8. There are three persons ; the first, the second, and 
the third. 

9. The first person denotes the speaker or writer ; as, 
I, George, command it. 

10. The second person denotes the person or thing 
addressed ; as, Henry, will you come ? — Wave your tops, 
ye pines. 

11. The third person denotes the person or thing 
spoken of ; as, John and Joseph are going to school. 

12. Every noun is by its nature in the third person. 
But a noun used to explain a pronoun, when it is said to be 
in apposition with the pronoun, takes the person of the 
pronoun. So also, a noun denoting a person or thing 
addressed, is said to be in the second person. 

III.— NUMBER. 

13. Number is a property of nouns, that distinguishes 
one thing from more than one. 

14. There are two numbers, the singular and the plural. 

15. The singular number denotes but one thing ; as, 
pen, fox. 



NOUNS. 



19 



16. The plural number denotes more things than one ; 
as, pens, foxes. 

17. Most nouns form their plural number by adding s 
to the singular; as, house, houses; book, books. 

18. Nouns ending in ch soft, 1 o preceded by a conso- 
nant 2 s, sh, x, or z, form their plural by adding es to the 
singular ; as, match, matches ; tomato, tomatoes ; cross, 
crosses ; brush, brushes; box, boxes; waltz, ivaltzes. 

19. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant form 
their plural by changing y into i and adding es ; as, army, 
armies. 

20. Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel follow the 
general rule of adding s ; as, chimney, chimneys ; storey, 
storeys* 

21. The following nouns ending in f change the f into v 
and add es : 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


calf 


calves 


loaf 


loaves 


thief 


thieves 


elf- 


elves 


self 


selves 


wolf 


wolves 


half 


halves 


sheaf 


sheaves 


beef 


beeves 


leaf 


leaves 


shelf 


shelves 


staff 


staves 



The plural form beeves does not convey the same idea as the 
singular beef. The word elf also takes elf 8 in the plural, and the word 
shelf takes shelf s. 

22. The following nouns ending in fe form their plural 
by changing f into v and adding s : knife, knives ; wife, 
wives ; life, lives. 



1 Gh soft, as in the word church ; ch hard, as in the word chemistry. 

3 Some words ending in preceded by a consonant add s only to form the plural : 
as, piano, pianos ; zero, zeros. 

3 Storey, a stage or floor of a building, is generally written story in America]; but 
in England the correct form is still retained. 



20 ETYMOLOGY. 

23. Some nouns form their plural by the change of 
vowels. There are three orders of vowel-changes, as 
follows : 



1. a is changed to e. 


2. 00 is cha 


nged to ee. 


3. ou is changed to i. 


Singular. Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


man men 


goose 


geese 


mouse 


mice 


woman women 


tooth 


teeth 


louse 


lice 




foot 


feet 


cow 


kine 



These are remnants of older plural formations. 

24. Some nouns form their plural by the addition 
of en or ren ; as, ox, oxen ; child, children ; brother, 
brethren. 

This mode of forming the plural is of comparatively recent date. 
The plural of child was formerly childer. Thus we read : 

"The childer are pretty childer." — Beaumont and Fletcher. 

The Knight of the Burning Pestle, act i., sc. 2. 

25. The names of things weighed or measured are 
generally used in the singular number only ; as, flour, ale, 
rye, barley, tea. 

In commercial language men speak of teas and ales; but it is better 
English to say tea and ale of various qualities. 

26. Some nouns having a plural form are frequently 
treated as nouns in the singular number ; as, alms, mathe- 
matics, means, ?ieivs, ethics, optics, amends, shambles. 
The word summons has summonses in the plural. 

27. Some nouns are used in the plural only. The most 
ordinary are : annals, ashes, bellows, billiards, bowels, coin- 
passes, entrails, intestines, measles, oats, pincers, scissors, 
snuffers, thanks, tongs, trousers, vespers, wages. 



nouns. 21 

Shakespeare uses bellows in the singular: 

"The bellows bloivs." — Pericles, i., 2. 

His contemporaries, Beaumont and Fletcher, speak of "a thanks" 
—Vol. i., p. 5. 

28. Foreign words that have become naturalized form 
their plural in the ordinary English way ; as, index, in- 
dexes ; memorandum, memorandums ; focus, focuses ; 
automaton, automatons ; beau, beaus. 

We still say radius, radii; datum, data; parenthesis, parentheses ; 
axis, axes; phenomenon, phenomena; cherub, cherubim; seraph, 
seraphim. But we may form the plural of formula by formulas or 
formidas, and bandit, by banditti or bandits. 

29. The plural of compound nouns is formed by 
making the principal word plural ; as, step-son, step-sons ; 
brother-in-lato, brothers-in-law. But we say attorney- 
generals rather than attorneys-general. 

30. Where both parts of the compound noun seem to 
have equal prominence, each, following the French idiom, 
takes the plural form in the plural number ; as, man- 
servant, men-servants ; Tcnight-templdr , knights-templars ; 
lord-justice, lords-justices. 

31. Compound nouns ending in ful follow the general 
rule of adding s; as, mouthful, mouthfuls ; spoonful, 
spoonfuls. 

32. Some nouns, originally neuter, are alike in the sin- 
gular and the plural ; as, deer, sheep, stvine, salmon. 

33. Particles used as substantives form their plu- 
ral by adding 's, or es ; as, the ifs and the buts ; the 
ayes and the noes; the O's and the Macs; the fs and 
the i's. 



22 




ETYMOLOGY. 










EXERCISES. 






/. Write 


the following nouns in the 


pin 


\ral: 


1. patron 


patrons 


2. fox • foxes 




3. echo 


citizen 





fuss 




grotto 


cousin 





tax 




key 


heir 





lash 




tomato 


comrade 





fish 




potato 


window 





willow 




throe 



echoes 



II. Write or spell the plurals of the nouns: 

Day, days; navy, ; key, ; fly, ; valley, ; fancy, 

; duty, ; balcony, ; enemy, ; monkey, ; bay, 

; Henry, ; Emily, ; boy, ; penny, ; bounty, 

; journey, ; sky, ; study, ; beauty, . 

Ill Give the plurals of the following nouns: 

1. Wife, calf, knife, beef, loaf. 2. Muff, proof, handkerchief, half, fife. 
3. Life, self, shelf, wharf. 4. Gulf, dwarf, wolf, safe, hoof, thief. 

IV. Write or spell the ivords of this section in the singular: 

1. Teeth, mice, pianos, geese, matches. 2. Children, women, ladies, 
potatoes, skies. 3. Oxen, horses, feet, moneys, armies. 4. Eyes, 
stomachs, peaches, folios, trenches. 

V. Indicate orally, or by means of the letters s. or p., 
whether the nouns of this section are used in the singular 
or in the plural: 



1. wages p. 


2. rice s. 


3. thanks p. 


4. billiards p. 


alms 


sugar 


scissors 


tongs 


barley 


oats 


wheat 


news 


riches 


mathematics 


potatoes 


pincers 


annals 


measles 


parsley 


raisins 


politics 


means 


pneumatics 


acoustics 



NOUNS. 23 

VI Give the plurals of the folloiving nouns: 

1. Father-in-law, step-daughter, son-in-law, cousin-german, spoon- 
ful, woman-servant, glassful. 2. Deer, salmon, trout, cupful, major- 
general, daughter-in-law, account-book, lord-justice. 

VII Write the figure (i) after the nouns of the first, 
(2) after those of the second, and (3) after nouns of the 
third person: 

I, your general, order you to the fort. — Charles, give me a book 
from the library. — John, you may go home. — George, buy me some 
postage stamps. — Archbishop Carroll was a friend of Washington. — 
Napoleon died on the Island of St. Helena. — Comrades, hasten to the 
battle. — Gentlemen, the hour so long expected has come. — Children, 
be obedient to your parents, and strive to grow in holiness. 

VIII. Write in the plural the nouns in italics : 

A book, ^ pen, a pencil, a slate, are used in the class-room. — A stove, 
a knife, a fork, a table, are used in the kitchen. — A history, a geog- 
raphy, a novel, are in the library. — A horse, a wagon, a carriage, are 
in the stable. — A statue, a crucifix, a picture, a chair, an altar, are in 
the sanctuary. — A duck, a goose, a chicken, a rabbit, are in the farm- 
yard. — A boy, a girl, a woman, a man, were in the lecture-hall. — 
Goldsmith played on the flute. 

IX. Spell the plurals of the italicized nouns : 

In reading history consult your atlas. — Have Mass said for the re- 
pose of his soul. — Virgil sat beneath the beech. — He prays in the church. 
—He has the eye of a lynx. — The ball broke the sash of the window. — 
The door was open, and the boy entered the room to get a book. — Has 
the visitor come with his servant? — Where are the broom and the brush 
that I gave you? — The book-case is empty. — The arch has a keystone. 
— He is without spot or blemish. — Have you seen the princess? — Mend 
the shoe. — The nuncio called on the cardinal. — Pope's grotto is in 
Twickenham. 



24 ETYMOLOGY. 

X. Write in the plural the words in italics: 

The fly alighted on a window. — The lily and the morning -glory w r ere 
in bloom. — The city was noted for its large chimney. — The index is 
complete. — The formula of the vow was written with much difficulty. 
— The focus did not suit his eye. — John praised the beauty of the toy. — 
The vieiv is delightful. — Pope was the greatest English poet of the 
eighteenth century. 

XI Give the plurals of the italicized nouns: 

Theploiv and the rake are in the barn. — With a knife the loaf was 
cut in halves. — Teach the boy to read. — Play the piano. — Her mother- 
in-law has gone home. — The lesson is recited. — The woman is sick. — 
The bird is on the tree. — The flower has faded. — The man is in busi- 
ness. — The step-daughter is here. — The army was defeated. — The 
enemy could not attain his purposes. 

XII. Write in the singular the nouns in italics : 

The house contains seven storeys. — The brooks are swollen. — Cliil- 
dren delight in listening to interesting stories. — John received the toys. 
— The men are working well. — His teeth are aching. — The mice were 
caught. — The stores are all closed. — The cakes are broken. — The pic- 
tures were painted. — Has Henry the pens and pencils? — Potatoes and 
tomatoes are nutritious vegetables. — The banditti withdrew to the 
mountains. 

XIII Fill in the Hank with such of the folio w ing ivords 
as will complete the sense : 

Steel, iron, silver, lead, flour, sugar, wool, straw, clay, milk. 

I . Swords are made of . Boilers are made of ., Hats are 

made of . Pipes are made of . Cake is made of . 

Watches are made of . Candy is made of . Carpets are 

made of . Bells are made of . Books are made of . 

Shoes are made of . Cheese is made from . 

XIV. Write two sentences, each containing a noun in the 
first person ; three, each containing a noun in the second 



nouns. 25 

person ; three, each containing one noun or more in the 
third person. 

XV. Write three sentences, each containing one noun 
or more in the singular number ; also three, each contain- 
ing one noun or more in the plural. Write four short 
sentences on gold ; write four on bkead. 

IV.— GENDER. 

34. Gender, in English grammar, is a property of 
nouns, which expresses distinction in the names of living 
beings and of things without life. 

Gender belongs only to the word, and not to the sex it may repre- 
sent. Thus, the person man is of the male sex, while the word man is 
of the masculine gender. 

35. There are three genders, the masculine, the femi- 
nine, and the neuter. 

36. The masculine gender is that which denotes the 
names of male beings ; as, man, stag. 

37. The feminine gender is that which denotes the 
names of female beings ; as, woman, coiv. 

38. The neuter gender is that which denotes the 
names of things that are neither male nor female ; as, 
stone, water. 

The word neuter means neither. It is simply a grammatical term 
applied to the names of things without life. 

39. A noun that may be either masculine or feminine is 
said to be of the common gender ; as, parent, which may 
be father or mother ; child, which may be boy or girl. 

40. The masculine and feminine of nouns are distin- 
guished in three ways : 



26 



ETYMOLOGY. 



/. — By the use of different too ds. 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


bachelor 


maid, spin- 


king 


queen 




ster * 


lad 


lass 


boar 


sow 


lord 


lady 


boy 


girl 


landlord 


landlady 


brother 


sister 


man 


woman 


buck 


doe 


master 


mistress 


bull 


cow 


nephew 


niece 


cock 


hen 


papa 


mamma 


colt 


filly 


ram, wether 


ewe 


drake 


duck 


sir 


madam 


father 


mother 


son 


daughter 


friar or monk 


nun 


stag, hart 


hind 


gander 


goose 


steer 


heifer 


gentleman 


lady 


uncle 


aunt 


stallion, gelding 


mare 


widower 


widow 


husband 


wife 


wizard 


witch 2 




77. — By the u 


se of suffixes. 




Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


abbot 


abbess 


marquis 


marchioness 


actor 


actress 


negro 


negress 


bridegroom 


bride 


patron 


patroness 


count 


countess 


prophet 


prophetess 


czar 


czarina 


protector 


protectress 


duke 


duchess 


prince 


princess 


emperor 


empress 


shepherd 


shepherdess 


hero 


heroine 


songster 


songstress 


heir 


heiress 


tailor 


tailoress 


lion 


lioness 


tiger 


tigress 


The suffix ess comes to us from 


the Norman-French. 



1 In legal terms the word spinster is applied to every unmarried woman. 

2 Witch, until recently, was of the common gender ; as, " Your honor is a witch."' 
-Scott, Fortunes of Nigel, 2. 



NOUNS. 



27 



III. — By composition of words. 



Masculine. 
buck-rabbit 
cock-sparrow 
he-goat 



Feminine. 
doe-rabbit 
hen-sparrow 
she-goat 



Masculine. 
male-child 
man-servant 
male-descendants 



Feminine. 
female-child 
maid-servant 
female-descendants 



41. When the sex is not apparent the neuter pronoun is 
sometimes used ; as, " It is a fine bird." Sometimes also 
preference is given to the masculine form of the pro- 
noun ; as, "A parent should care for the education of 
his child" 

The gender of nouns was differently determined by the old English 
people. It depended on both the form and the meaning of the word, 
as in the French and German languages. The present distinction 
came into general use during the fourteenth century, and was due in 
a great measure to the inability of the Norman-French lords to master 
the laws governing gender in the language of their English subjects. 



PERSONIFICATION. 

42. Things without life are said to be personified when 
they are spoken to, or spoken of, as persons or living be- 
ings ; as, "Charity seeketh not Tier own." 

— A brave vessel, 
Who had, no doubt, some noble creature in her, 
Dashed all to pieces. 

43. Personification endows a neuter noun with the 
attributes of sex ; as, 

" Fine old Christmas, with the snowy hair and ruddy face, had done 
his duty that year in the noblest fashion." — Dickens. 

"And Belgium's capital had gathered then 
Her beauty and her chivalry." — Byron. 



28 ETYMOLOGY. 

EXERCISES. 

/. State orally, or by means of the letters m., f., c, or 
n., whether the noun is masculine, feminine, common, of 
neuter. 



.. king, m. 


2. dressmaker, f. 


3. horse, c. 


queen 


milliner 


mistress 


general 


embroiderer 


house 


captain 


lion 


knowledge 


nephew 


hen 


duck 



II. Indicate the gender of the nouns by placing m., f., 
C, or n. after each, in the folloivmg sentences : 

The orphan is deserving of care. — The child is father of the man. — 
The way was long, the wind was cold. — Labor conquers all things. — 
" The children coming home from school 
Look in at the open door." 

Longfellow, The Village Blacksmith. 

III. Change into the feminine the nouns that are itali- 
cized: 

The shepherd is dead. — Is the lion fierce? — Where is the bridegroom 
this morning? — The tailor has brought the coat. — The widower is very 
poor. — The baron is reading Newman's " Callista." — The heir has suc- 
ceeded to the estate. 

IV. Change the italicized nouns into the masculine : 

The lady has gone to the library. — The girl is going to Boston. — 
The patroness of the children is dead. — The princess has married. — 
Her aunt is sick. — The empress has gone to Germany. — The coimtess is 
at the hotel. 

V.— CASE. 

44. Case is a mode of inflection showing the relation of 
a noun or pronoun to some other word in a sentence. 



nouns. 29 

45. There are three cases ; namely, the nominative, 
the possessive, and the objective. 

46. These three cases admit only of two forms for 
nouns: the nominative and the possessive. The nomina- 
tive and objective cases of nouns are always the same in 
form. 

47. A noun or pronoun that is the subject of a verb, 
is said to be in the nominative case ; as, JReinhart 
sculptured the statue of Clytie. 

48. How to find the nominative. — The subject of a 
verb, when a noun or pronoun, is always in the nominative 
case. 

The subject of a verb is that which answers to the question con- 
taining who or %vhat before the verb : as, Reinhart sculptured the 
statue of Clytie. Who sculptured the statue of Clytie ? Reinhart. 
Therefore the proper noun Reinhart is the subject.. The sunflower 
blooms. What blooms ? The sunflower. Therefore the common 
noun sunflower is the subject. The table was struck. What was 
struck ? The table. Therefore the common noun table is the sub- 
ject. All these subjects are in the nominative case. 

49. The possessive case is that form of a noun or a 
pronoun that denotes the relation of possession ; as, TJie 
man's hat ; my coat. 

The possessive case may express : 

(1) Ownership ; as, John's house. 

(2) Origin ; as, Scotfs novels, Singer's sewing machine. 

(3) Kind ; as, Boys' clothing ; men's hats. 

(4) State of being; as, His uncle's death; his father's sickness. 

50. The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the sin- 
gular, by adding an s with an apostrophe to the nomina- 
tive form ; as, The bird' s feathers. 



30 ETYMOLOGY. 

51. When the nominative plural ends in s, the apostro- 
phe alone is added to form the possessive ; as, The ladies' 
fans. 

52. When the nominative plural does not end in s, the 
possessive case is formed in the same manner as in the 
singular; as, Children's toys are dear to them. 

53. The sign of the possessive is now used only in words 
expressing living beings. Thus we say, The bird's nest, my 
grandfather' s clock. 

Neuter nouns, when personified, take the possessive form. 

It is incorrect to say the house's roof, as was formerly said ; the 
proper form is, the roof of the house. Nouns of time, however, still 
retain the old form of the possessive ; as, A week's supply, a day's 
journey. 

54. The 's stands for es, the genitive singular of some 
masculine and neuter nouns in old English. 

It is erroneous to consider the 's a contraction of the word his. Femi- 
nine nouns did not take the suffix es to form the possessive till the 
thirteenth century ; hence it is that, while we say Lord's Day, we also 
use the expression Lady-Day instead of Lady's Day. 

55. A noun or pronoun that is the object of a verb or 
of a preposition, is said to be in the objective case ; as, 

" I heard the ripple washing in the reeds." — Tennyson. 

56. How to find the objective. — The object of a 

verb or of a preposition answers to the question containing 
whom or what after the verb or the preposition ; as, / heard 
the ripple washing in the reeds. I heard what ? I heard 
the ripple. Washing in what f Washing in the reeds. — 
Ripple and reeds are in the objective case. 



KOUNS. 



31 



VI.— DECLENSION. 



57. The declension of a noun is the naming of the 
noun according to all its cases in both numbers. 





Examples 01 


1 Declension. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. Ox 


Oxen 


Nom. Sheep 


Sheep 


Poss. Ox's 


Oxen's 


Poss. Sheep's 


Sheep's 


Obj. Ox 


Oxen 


Obj. Sheep 


Sheep 


Nom. Man 


Men 


Nom. Lady 


Ladies 


Poss. Man's 


Men's 


Poss. Lady's 


Ladies 


Obj. Man 


Men 


Obj. Lady 


Ladies 



EXERCISES. 

/. Give the possessive form of the following nouns : 

1. William, thief, woman, stomach, ox, army. 

2. Echoes, Mary, women, buffaloes, torches, children. 

II. Change the phrases in italics into nouns in the 
possessive case, as in the folloiuing example : 

" The history of a people is the record of the civilization of a peo- 
ple — A people's history is the record of a people's civilization." 

The marbles of the boy are in the drawer. — He came to do the will 
of his father. — The quaker wife of Robert of Lincoln. — The warbling 
of the bird echoes through the hall. — I found in the street the book be- 
longing to Ann. — The tools of the carpenter are in the tool-chest. — The 
hat of the lady is decked with an ostrich-feather. — The merits of the 
historian depend upon the earnestness with which he seeks to know 
the truth. — It is the journey of a day between the two towns. 

Why is it permitted to say a day's journey, and 
not a chimney's top ? (53. ) 



32 ETYMOLOGY. 

III. Write out the folloiving exercise on slates or copy- 
books, drawi?ig one line under the nominative case, and 
tzvo lines under the objective case. 

Grammar is an important study. — Wordsworth is the most careful 
writer among modern poets. — Her home is on the deep. — We left him 
alone with his glory. — Cardinal Newman writes classic English prose. 
— The end of government is the good of mankind. — Write your address 
on your slate. — Clytie was changed into a sunflower. 

IV. Where the dash occurs, insert, in the proper case, a 
noun that tvill complete the sense. 

Health, girl, patriot, day, George, work, Turk, children, evening, 
Indian. 

Edward Everett was a celebrated orator. — Temperance promotes 

. The bright morning star, harbinger of . Isabel saw a 

tear starting in the eye. — The blood was spilled in a noble 

cause. — Bring me hat. — Great are wrought by prayer. — 

The was warm. — The was dreaming of the hour. — The 

were captured by the . 

V. Where the dash occurs insert a noun that will 
complete the sense. 

1. Bird, boy, clock, pony, soldier. 2. Musician, straw, knowledge, 
hope. 3. Snow, fire, squirrel, songs, philosopher. 

The wind was bitterly cold. — How sweetly the — — sings. — Do 

like to skate? — The old spoke the truth. — The wooden 

is stopped. — The ran away. 

2. The played on the harp. — We acquire by patient 

study. — While remains there can be no positive misery. — A 

will furnish an occasion when people are determined to quarrel. 

3. The covered the ground. — The merry little sat quietly 

on the branch. — The burns cheerily. — He sang sweetly the old 

of his boyhood. — St. Anselm was a great as well as a dis- 
tinguished churchman. 



nouns. 33 

VI. Parse the nouns in the sentences given below, as 
in the example. 

Example. — William has found a bird's nest in the hedge. 

William is a noun, because it is a name ; it is a proper noun, be- 
cause it is the name of a particular individual; — in the third person, 
because it is spoken of; — in the singular number, because it means but 
one; — of the masculine gender, because it denotes a person of the 
male sex ; — in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the 
verb has found. 

Bird's is a noun (tvhy?); — it is a common noun (why? ); — in the 
third person (why?); — in the singular number (why?); — in the mascu- 
line gender (why?); — in the possessive case, because it denotes the rela- 
tion of possession. 

West is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, because it denotes a thing that is neither male nor fe- 
male, and in the objective case, because it is the object of the verb 
has found. 

Hedge is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender (why?); — and in the objective case, because it is the 
object of the preposition in. 

1. The wreck was washed upon the shore. — 2. A gloomy house stood 
by the roadside. — 3. The eagle has a strong and piercing eye. — L 
Bleak winds whistled through the pines around the cabin. — 5. A wise 
man's anger is of short continuance. — 6. Flakes of snow soon hid the 
ground from view. — 7. St. Teresa of Jesus is one of the glories of 
Spain. Her writings are highly esteemed. 

" It was morning on hill and stream and tree, 
And morning in the young knight's heart." 

Lowell, — Vision of Sir Launfal. 

VII. Write four sentences, each containing a noun in 
the nominative case ; three, each containing a noun in the 
objective case ; two, each containing a noun in the possess- 
ive case. 



34 ETYMOLOGY. 

VIII. Write ttvo sentences, each containing one noun in 
the nominative case, one in the objective case, and one in 
the possessive case. 

IX. Write sentences, each containing one or more of the 
following tvords : 



teacher 


brother 


sisters 


house 


field 


rivers 


fish 


farmer's 


boat 


ship 


disobedient 


parents 



X. Write five short sentences on the subject of your last 
reading-lesson. 

XL Put in your own words, and in not more than six 
sentences, what you think of the study of grammar. 



CHAPTER IV. 

ARTICLES. 

1. An article is a word used to determine the sense in 
which a noun is taken ; as, the school, a man, an eye. 

Some grammarians give to the article the name of adjective be- 
cause it always accompanies nouns. 

A noun may be taken in a definite or in an indefinite sense. 

2. There are two articles, the definite and the in- 
definite. 

3. The definite article is the. It points out some 
particular object or objects and limits their sense ; as, the 
book, the history. 

4. The indefinite article is an or a. It does not point 
out any particular object ; as, a town, an engine. 



ARTICLES, 35 

5. A is used before a consonant sound ; as, a swarm, 
a yearling, a well, a unit. 

6. An is used before a vowel sound ; as, an errand, 
an excuse, an urn, an hour. 

EXERCISES. 

I. Supply the proper article in the following sentences : 

1. Can yon describe ostrich? — 2. What kind of bird is 

eagle? — 3. Bring knife and apple. — 4. Romans placed 

ashes of dead in nrn. — 5. Croesus was considered rich 

man. — 6. The country possessed fertile soil, variety of scen- 
ery, abundance of game, and healthful climate. 

77. Where the dash occurs insert one or other of the 
folloiving words, preceded by a or an. 

1. Youth, elm, hour, eagle. 2. Honorable, union, watch, yoke. 

1. Be thankful for a reward. It is that you see flying. Come 

in at , not later. He is that needs instruction. The wood- 
man has cut down . 

2. The four societies formed . The boys received a present of 

. The farmer has of oxen. That young man is occupying 

position. 



CHAPTER V. 

ADJECTIVES. 

I.— CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

1. An adjective is a word used to qualify or describe a 
noun or pronoun; as, a good school; five diligent boys ; 
he is strong. 

2. Adjectives are divided into five classes : common, 
proper, numeral, pronominal, and participial. 



36 ETYMOLOGY. 

3. A common adjective is a word that expresses 
quality, quantity, or place ; as, good, bad, little, much, 
eastern, outer. 

4. A proper adjective is an adjective derived from a 
proper name ; as, the American flag, the Irish cause, 
the Canadian people. 

5. A numeral adjective is an adjective that expresses 
number ; as, two pears, the first speaker, a twofold 
purpose. 

6. Numeral adjectives are of three kinds ; cardinal, or- 
dinal, and multiplicative. 

(1) The cardinal adjective tells how many ; as, one, two, three. 

(2) The ordinal adjective tells which one; as, first, second, 
third. 

(3) The multiplicative adjective tells how many fold; as, 
single or alone, double or twofold, triple or threefold. 

7. A pronominal adjective is an adjective that per- 
forms the office of certain pronouns ; that is, it may be 
used with a noun, or it may represent the noun ; as, Silver 
and gold I have none ; feiv shall part ivhere many meet. 

8. The principal pronominal adjectives are : All, another, 
any ; both, each, either, enough, every, few ; former, latter; 
little, less, least ; much, many, more, most ; no?ie, neither, 
one, other, same, several, some, such. 

9. A participial adjective is an adjective derived from 
a verb and having the form of a participle ; as, a loving 
mother ; the rising sun. 

EXERCISES. 

I. Insert such of the following nouns as the adjective 
given luill qualify : 



ADJECTIVES. 37 

1. Archway, man, shadow. 2. Beast, book, parent. 
3. Student, girl, countenance. 

1. A shattered — — . 2. A voracious . 3. An earnest . 

A venerable . An instructive . A dutiful . A fleeting 

. A devoted . A pleasing . 

77. Write out the following sentences, underlining the 
articles and adjectives that occur : 

His gifted pen transmutes everything into gold, and his own genial 
nature reflects its sunshine through his pages. 

The gentle spirit of his father walked with him through life, a pure 
and virtuous monitor; and, in all the vicissitudes of his career, we find 
him ever more chastened in mind by the sweet and holy recollection of 
the home of his infancy. — Irving, — Life of Goldsmith. 

III. Indicate orally, or by means of the letters p. or c, 
whether the adjective is proper or common : 

1. true 2. French 3. sweet 3. Alpine 

dull pleasant small wise 

English happy British Grecian 

IV. Insert one or other of the following numeral or pro- 
nominal adjectives that will complete the sense in the follow- 
ing sentences : 

Each, all, once, former, none, later, some, one, other, such, twenty. 

They had an apple. — He spoke after being struck. — The 

book has a large circulation, the has but little. — The 

went to the field, remained behind. — The boat is the that 

was used yesterday. of the men rode a gray horse, the a 

black one. The punishment was as he deserved. — The cows 

were in the barn. 

V. Write out the following sentences, draining one line 
under each numeral, and two lines under each pronominal 
adjective : 



38 ETYMOLOGY. 

Every Catholic home should have a supply of Catholic books. — The 
first time I was on the ocean, I read a novel by Dickens, — Critics pre- 
fer Thackeray to all other English novelists. — I am reading his Henry 
Esmond for the fifth time. — Twenty large vessels sailed up the river in 
one day. — Several were late. — Few know how to be grateful. — Neither 
will come. — Gribbon wrote the first chapter of his great history for the 
seventh time before he became satisfied with it. — Many were studying 
Milton. — None should be unacquainted with Shakespeare. 

VI Write out the following adjectives, and indicate by 
means of c, p., n., pro., part., to tvhich class each of 
them belongs. 



.. small, c. 


2. German 


3. Spanish 


4. nut-brown 


fourth 


two 


amusing 


hard 


interesting 


tenth 


rising 


soft 


some 


Irish-American 


beloved 


many 



VII. Parse the adjectives in the sentences here given ac- 
cording to the ttvo following examples : 

Example 1. — All good looks are interesting companions. 

All is a pronominal adjective, because it is used with the noun 
books, and it may also take the place of a noun. 

Good is a common adjective, because it qualifies the noun 
books. 

Interesting is a participial adjective, because it has the form of a 
participle, and qualifies the noun companions. 

Exavnple 2. — Two of my schoolmates won prizes in the French 
language. 

Two is a numeral adjective, because it expresses number. 

French is a proper adjective, because it is derived from a proper 
name. 

1. The red squirrel is a blithe creature.— 2. The same duties were 
expected of each. — 3. Spenser is a great allegorical poet. — 4. This 
gently flowing stream empties into a beautiful lake. — 5. — Our three 



ADJECTIVES. 39 

friends walked across a plowed field, and soon came to a running 
stream. — 6. We saw a merry yachting party of American and English 
gentlemen on Lake Ontario. 

II.— COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

10. Comparison is the change in the form of an ad- 
jective, to express different degrees of quality or quantity ; 
as, hard, harder, hardest; soft, softer, softest. 

11. The degrees of comparison are three in number: 
the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

12. The positive degree is expressed by the adjective 
in its simple form ; as, tvide, great. 

13. The comparative degree is expressed by adding 
-r or -er to the positive ; as, tvider, greater. 

14. The comparative degree is used when two persons 
or things, or two sets or classes of persons or things, are 
compared. 

15. The superlative degree is expressed by adding -st 
or -est to the positive ; as, tvidest, greatest. 

16. The superlative degree is used when a comparison 
is made between more than two persons or things. 

17. Regular comparison. — The comparative of ad- 
jectives of one syllable is commonly formed by adding -er 
to the positive, and the superlative by adding -est ; as, 
great, greater, greatest. 

18. Comparison by adverbs. — Degrees of comparison 
may also be expressed by adding the adverbs more and 
most to the adjective ; as, gay, more gay, most gay. 

19. Adjectives of more than one syllable are generally 
compared by means of the adverbs more and most ; as, 
lovely, more lovely, most lovely. 



40 ETYMOLOGY. 

20. The degrees of diminution are expressed by the ad- 
verbs less and least ; as, noble, less noble, least noble. 

21. Those adjectives whose signification does not admit 
of different degrees cannot be compared ; as, two, all, in- 
finite, exact, supreme, universal, eternal, certain. 

III.— IRREGULAR COMPARISONS. 

22. Some adjectives are compared irregularly. A study 
of their nature, their origin, and their history will give 
greater insight into the construction of our language. For 
the purpose of this study, we shall divide them into two 
groups. 





GrROUP A. 




Tsitive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


late 


later or latter 


latest or last 


nigh 


nigher (near) 


nighest, next 


near 


nearer 


nearest 


old 


older or elder 


oldest or eldest 



(i) Late has two comparatives and two superlatives : of these 
latter and last are the oldest. So also near has next and 
nearest for its superlatives, and old has elder and eldest as 
well as older and oldest. 

(2) Last is a contraction of an old form lat-st = latest. The t 
is dropped out according to the law in Orthography, ch. i. 
21. Latter and last refer to the order of things; as, "The 
latter group." " The last of the^Saxons." Later and latest 
refer to time; as, "I shall see you later." " Tuesday is the 
latest day." This distinction is of recent origin. 

(3) Next is a contraction of nighest. It is derived from the old 
English neh-st, in which the h was a sharp guttural, sounded 
as ch in loch. The process of the change may be represented 
thus: h + s = k + s = x. So also, at an earlier stage of the 
language, our word highest was sounded hext. 



ADJECTIVES. 41 

(4) Near we have placed in the comparative because it was it- 
self once a comparative. 

(5) Elder, eldest have vowel-change as well as inflexion. 





Group B. 




Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


good 


better 


best 


bad, ill, evil 


worse 


worst 


little 


less 


least 


much, many 


more 


most 



23. The comparatives and superlatives in this group are all 
formed from positives no longer in use. Let us examine them. 

(1) Better comes from a root .bat — good. This root may still 
be traced in our expression " to boot" — the vowel changing 
as we have seen it in the word elder. 

(2) Best = bet-st = bet-est. Here, as in the word last, the 
t is dropped out, according to the law in Orthography, al- 
ready referred to. 

(3) Worse == worse comes from a root, weor = bad. The suffix 
-se is another form of the regular comparative ending, -er. 
We have seen how s and r are interphangeable (Orth., ch. i. 
22). Worst is shortened from worrest (Orth., ch. i. 15). 
Chaucer sometimes uses ladder for worse. 

(4) Less is formed from a root las, meaning weak, infirm. 
Less — less, in which the suffix -s (= -se) is another form 
of the comparative -r (Ibid). Therefore lesser, like nearer, 
is a double comparative. Shakespeare uses the word littlest 
(Hamlet, iii. 2). 

(5) Much once meant large, great. The root mo in mo-re and 
most also means great. Shakespeare uses this root as a 
comparative in the form moe. 

" Friends, I owe moe tears 
To this dead man, than you shall see me pay." 

— Julius Caesar, v. iii. 



42 



ETYMOLOGY. 



EXERCISES. 

1. Compare the folloiving adjectives : 



Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

1. wise 

small 

soft 



Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

2. warm 

rude 

ripe 



II. Insert one or other of the words here given, in the 
following sentences : 

happy wise 

cold harder 

larger healthy 

1. He is older than you. — He is a boy.- 

as Mary. — George is a youth. — The flower is the I have 

seen. — This is a day. — This pair is than the one you gave me 

yesterday. — Jane is a girl. — I have the respect for his nephew. 

III. Compare the following adjectives by adding -r or 



tall 

noble 

greatest 

-William is not as - 



-er, and - 


St or -est. 








Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 


Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


wise 





full 








noble 





long 








gentle 





round 








lazy 





strait 








near 





true 








high 





strict 





- 


simple 





humble 








ample 





thick 








ugly 





serene 








profound 





remote 









IV. Parse the adjectives in the folloiving sentences, ac- 
cording to the example : 



PRONOUNS. 43 

Example. — Two honest men were they. 

Two is a numeral adjective (why?); — it cannot be compared; it lim- 
its the noun men. 

Honest is a common adjective (why?)-, — it is compared (pos. honest, 
com. more honest, sup. most honest), and qualifies the noun men. 

1. The burnt child dreads the fire. — 2. The surrounding country 
presents a charming prospect. — 3. Vicious people generally corrupt 
their companions. — 4. A clear and upright conscience is something to 
be prized. — 5. A beautiful eye makes silence eloquent. 

V. Parse the nouns, articles, and adjectives in the 
folloiving extract: 

" She was dead. Dear, gentle, patient, noble Nell was dead. Her 
little bird — a poor, slight thing, the pressure of a finger would have 
crushed — was stirring nimbly in its cage ; and the strong heart of its 
child-mistress was mute and motionless forever." — Dickens, — Old 
Curiosity Shop. 



CHAPTER VI. 

* PRONOUNS. 



1. A pronoun is a word that stands for a noun ; as, Mis 
slate ; my hat ; who is afraid ? 

2. Pronouns are divided into four classes ; namely, 
personal, relative, demonstrative, and interrogative. 

I.— PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

3. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that by its form 
marks person. It distinguishes the speaker, the person 
spoken to, and the person or thing spoken of. 

4. Personal pronouns are divided into two classes; 
namely, simple and compound. 



44 ETYMOLOGY. 

5. The simple personal pronouns are five : I, of the 
first person ; thou, of the second ; he, she, and it, of the 
third person. 

6. The compound personal pronouns are also five : 
myself, of the first person ; thyself, of the second person ; 
himself, herself, itself, of the third person. 

The compound personal pronouns are formed by the addition of the 
word self to the possessive case of the first and second persons, and the 
objective case of the third person. 

In a previous stage of the language the word self was added to the 
objective case of the first and second persons, and men said, meself, 
theeself. In the thirteenth century the present custom of saying my- 
self and thyself began to prevail. 

7. The compound personal pronouns have no possessive 
case, and are alike in the nominative and objective. Their 
plural form is ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. 

8. The word self, originally an adjective, has come 
to be considered a noun. The form oneself is of recent 
origin. 

9. The functions of the compound personal pronouns are : 

(1) Reflexive ; as, He hurt himself 

(2) Emphatic ; as, I shall do it myself 

In old forms of the language, me was used for myself; as, / lay me 
down to sleep. 

10. Declension of the Simple Personal Pronouns. 

First Person. Second Person. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Nom. I we thou ye, or you 

Poss. my, or mine our, or ours thy, or thine your, or yours 

Obj. me us thee you 





PKONOUNS. 




Third 


Person 




Singular. 




Mas. 


Fern. 


Neuter. 


Nom. he 


she 


it 


Poss. his 


her, or hers 


its 



45 



Plural. 

they 

their, or theirs 
Obj. him her it them 

11. Of the two possessive forms, my, our, thy, your, 
her, their, are used before the noun with which they ex- 
press the relation of possession ; as, This is my hat ; and 
mine, ours, thine, yours, hers, theirs, are used when 
the governing noun is understood ; as, This hat is mine ; 
these looks are yours. 

II. — RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

12. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates to a 
word or phrase going before ; as, The man who toishes to 
succeed must labor. It also connects different clauses of a 
sentence ; as, I paid for the goods which to ere sent to me. 

13. The word, phrase, or clause to which the pronoun 
relates is called the antecedent. 

14. The simple relative pronouns are who, which, 
what, and that. They do not vary in person and number. 

15. Who is applied to persons, which to animals and in- 
animate things, that to persons and things, what to things. 

16. A relative is of the same person, number, and 
gender as its antecedent. 

17. What and that have no declension. 



18. Declension of Who. 

C Nom. who 

Singular and Plural. < Poss. whose 

( Obj. whom 



46 ETYMOLOGY. 

19. Who is sometimes used for he that ; as, 

"Who steals my purse steals trash." — Shakespeare, — Othello, iii. 3. 

20. Declension of Which. 

f Nom. which 

Singular and Plural. < Poss. whose 

(. Obj. which 

21. Which formerly applied to persons as well as to 
neuter antecedents ; thus, where we say, Our Father who 
art in heaven, men formerly said, Our Father which art 
in heaven. 

Ben Jonson speaks of "our one relative which" Addison, two 
centuries later, pleads for the use of who and which, as against the in- 
troduction of the relative that. He represents those pronouns as say- 
ing : "We are descended of ancient families, and kept up our dignity 
and honor many years, till the Jack Sprat that supplanted us." 

22. What is sometimes used for that which ; as, Wtiat 
I do now, you shall know later on. 

It is needless to call what a compound or double relative. It is 
simply a relative pronoun. 

23. The adverbs where and there, united with the 
prepositions of, to, by, in, with, are used instead of the 
relatives ; as, This is the booh whereof I spoke, instead 
of, This is the book of which I spoke. 

Whereof = of which, of what. Thereof = of that. 

Whereby = by which, by what. Thereby = by that. 

Whereto = to which, to what. Thereto = to that. 

Wherein = in which, in what. Therein = in that 

Wherewith — with which, with what. Therewith = with that. 



PRONOUNS. 47 

24. The compound relative pronouns are formed by 
adding ever or soever to who, which, tvhat. They are de- 
clined like the simple relatives. 

III.— DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

25. A demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun that 
points out the noun with which it is used ; as, He gave me 
this book. 

This is a demonstrative pronoun, pointing out the noun booh, 

26. The demonstrative pronouns are two: this and that, 
with their plurals, these and those. 

27. The function of demonstrative pronouns is simply 
to name or point out. 

Demonstrative pronouns do not qualify in any sense. 

28. This is always demonstrative. That is used as a 
conjunction, a demonstrative, and a relative. In the fol- 
lowing sentence the word that is employed in all its senses: 

"I say, that 1 that* that, 5 that 4 that 5 gentleman used, is correct." 

That ^conjunction ; that* and that 5 = demonstrative with noun; 
that 3 =noun ; that A — relative. 

IV.— INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

29. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun employed 
in asking questions. 

30. Who, which, and what, when used in asking 
questions, are called interrogative pronouns ; as, Who 
did this ? Which is the book ? What do you ivant ? 

31. The interrogatives who and which are declined like 
the corresponding relatives. 



48 ETYMOLOGY. 

32. In old English, all the relatives, with the exception 
of that, were once interrogatives only. 

33. Who, as an interrogative, is used of persons only, 
and may be masculine or feminine; as, Who spoke to you ? 

34. What, which was in old English the neuter of who, 
is singular and neuter when used without the noun ; as, 
What are you doing ? 

35. When used with the noun, what may be singular 
or plural, and of any gender; as, Wliat booh are you read- 
ing ? What author wrote the book f What boys are going 
to play ball? 

36. What, used interrogatively in connection with per- 
sons, expresses: 

(1) The nature or quality of the person; as, What is God ? 
God is a pure spirit. " Whence and what art thou, execra- 
ble shape ?"— Milton. 

(2) The state of the person; as, What is that man? He is 
an auctioneer. " Wliat is this woman, quoth I, so worthily 
attired ? w — Langland. 

37. Which, as an interrogative, is selective ; that is, 
it implies that there is a certain number of persons or 
things from which selection is to be made; as, Wliich of 
you shall convince me of sin ? 

Whether was formerly used as an interrogative, and as such war 
equivalent to the phrase, which one of two ; as, 

"Whether is greater, the gift, or the altar that sanctifieth the gift?" 
—Matt xxiii. 19. 

EXERCISES. 

I. Write out the following sentences, and draw one line 
tinder the personal pronouns of the singular number, and 
two lines under those of the plural number : 



PRONOUKS. 49 

You are all doing well. — He has an excellent character. — We are 
going to the market. — She is an amiable girl. — It is a beautiful piece 
of book-making. — They listened with great attention to the reading of 
Hawthorne's Marble Faun. — My brother goes to confession regularly. 
— Does he read well? — They are good boys. — Blessed is he who has 
found his work, and who does it. 

77. In writing out the following sentences, replace the 
dash by a personal pronoun : 

1. Shun the company of Mm who would lead you to evil. — Those 

rebuke for laziness are friends. — He will fulfil 

promise. — He thinks of what does. — - saw what bought 

with money. 

2. He sent furniture on before . I left books behind 

me. — These are shoes. — Speak kindly to . Take to the 

church. 

Ill Insero a relative pronoun : 

1. This is the horse that we saw yesterday. — Elizabeth, was 

Queen of England, died in 1603. — He speaks the truth does well. 

— He would have the kernel must break the shell. 

2. He would honor him must not fear dying. — He hath 

ears to hear let him hear. — The book he sold was new. — The boy 

fails will lose his place. — All the money he had was put in 

bank. — This is the house Jack built. 

IV. Insert an interrogative pronoun that will complete 

the sense: 

1. discovered America? founded the Society of the 

Brothers of the Christian Schools? was the first Christian 

Martyr? of these books did yqu promise? preached last 

Sunday? is the greatest living orator? do you know 

about Mr. Gladstone? 

2. cow is sick? child is lost? is the name of the 

first president? is your father's name? 



50 ETYMOLOGY. 

V. Insert the simple personal, the relative, or the com- 
pound personal pronoun as the sense requires: 

I will go to the party. will be elected. — Shall go with . 

Where shall leave ? This is the principal approves. — 

Thomas Jefferson, wrote the Declaration of Independence, was 

elected third president of the United States. — Out of the depths have 

cried unto . He did it. — She was there. — But 

go on forever.— I spoke to . What fair} 7 music have 

heard. — The volume I lent has not been returned. 

VI Change the following sentences into sentences con- 
taining a relative or a personal pronoun and a prepo- 
sition : 

This is the book whereof I spoke = This is the book of which I 
spoke. 

Wliereof was the house built? — You do take the means whereby I 
live. — Whereto have we already gone? — In the day thou eatest thereof, 
thou shalt surely die. — Be at peace; thereby good shall come to you.— 
There is an island in the bay, and thereto we turned our boat. — He 
knows whereof he writes. 

VII Parse the pronouns in the folloiving sentences: 

Example. — As the man appeared honest, I employed him. — The 
boy who studies will learn. — Whose knife is this? John's. — I know 
ivhat is ivanted. 

/is a pronoun {why?)', it is a simple pers. pron. (why?); of the first 
pers. sing. n. (why?); of the masc. or the fern, gender (ivliy?); in the 
nom. case, because it is the subj. of the verb employed. 

Him is a simple pers. pron. (why?); of the third pers. sing. n. (ivhy?); 
of the masc. gender (why?); in the obj. case, because it is the object of 
the action expressed by the v. employed. 

Who is a simple relative pron. (why?); it is of the third pers. sing 
number (why?); of the masc. gender (ivhy?); and in the nom. case, 
because it is the subj. of the v. studies. 

Whose is an interrogative pron. (why?); it is of the third pers. sing. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 51 

n. (why?)\ of the neuter gender (why?); and in the possessive case, 
because it denotes the relation of possession. 

What is a relative pronoun, third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, nominative case to the verb is wanted. The object of know is 
the whole clause what is wanted. 

VIII. Name and parse the nouns, articles, adjectives, 
and pronouns in the following sentences : 

1. The summer breezes blow soft and cool. — 2. The sweetest flowers 
fringed the little stream. — 3. Not every one treads on marble floors. — 
4. Nobody knows who invented the alphabet. — 5. We cannot wrong 
others without injuring ourselves. — 6. Which of you will go with me? 
— 7. The gardener whose flowers we admired, plucked a few for us. — 
8. What I do now, you know not. 

9. Mark but my fall, and that that ruined me. — 

Shakespeare, — Henry VIII. 



CHAPTER VII. 

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



1. Analysis, in grammar, is the separation of a sen- 
tence into its parts. 

I.— CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES AS TO MEANING. 

2. With regard to their meaning, sentences are divided 
into four classes : declarative, imperative, interrogative, 
and exclamatory. 

3. A declarative sentence is a sentence that affirms 
or denies ; as, He writes his exercise. — He does not ivrite 
his exercise. 

4. An imperative sentence is a sentence that ex- 
presses a command ; as, Write your exercise. 



52 ETYMOLOGY. 

5. An interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks 
a question ; as, Does he ivrite his exercise ? 

6. An exclamatory sentence is a sentence that ex- 
presses emotion ; as, Alas ! what have you done ! 

II.— PRINCIPAL PARTS OF SENTENCES. 

7. Every sentence contains two essential parts, the 
subject and the predicate. 

8. A proposition is a thought or judgment expressed 
in words. 

9. A sentence that expresses but one proposition is called 
a simple sentence ; as, Boys play, — The wind Hows.-- 
Let the wind blow. 

10. The subject of a sentence is that of which some- 
thing is said ; as, God is love.— The five bums. 

11. .When the subject is only a single word it is called a 
simple subject. 

12. The subject with all its modifying words is called 
the logical subject ; as, 

" Now is the winter of our discontent 
Made glorious summer." — Shakespeare, — Richard III. 

Here winter is the grammatical subject ; the winter of our discon- 
tent is the logical subject. 

13. The grammatical subject of a sentence may be : 

(1) A noun ; as, Brevity is the soul of wit. 

(2) A pronoun ; as, / am far from home. 

(3) A verb in the infinitive mood ; as, To die is a gain. 

(4) A phrase ; as, To forgive one's enemies is a Christian 
duty. 

(5) A clause ; as, What is worth doing is worth doing well. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 53 

14. In imperative sentences the subject thou or you 
is frequently understood ; as, 

Honor thy father and thy mother. — Give him a book; that is, 
honor thou, give thou. 

15. Thou is still employed in poetry and in solemn 
forms of expression ; as, * 

"Lead Thou me on." — Newman. 

16. The predicate of a sentence is that which is 
said of the subject ; as, Henry reads. — The day is 
bright. 

17. When the predicate is a single word it is called a 
simple predicate. 

18. The grammatical predicate is simply the verb. 

19. The logical predicate includes the verb, with the 
object or attribute, and all adjuncts of the verb, object, or 

attribute. 

20. Two or more subjects united by a conjunction, and 
having the same predicate, form a compound subject ; 
as, Mary and Margaret knit the stockings. 

21. Two or more predicates united by a conjunction, 
and having the same subject, form a compound predi- 
cate ; as, The seasons come and go. 

22. Besides a subject and a predicate, a sentence usually 
contains an object or an attribute. 

23. The object of a sentence may be : 

(1) A noun ; as, "Keep Thou my feet" 

(2) A pronoun ; as, " God pity them both, and pity us all." 

(3) A verb in the infinitive mood ; as, Bernard is learning to 
write. 

(4) A phrase ; as, Dare to be true. 



54 ETYMOLOGY, 

(5) A clause ; as, 

Breathes there the man, with soul so dead, 

Who never to himself hath said, 

" This is my own, my native land " ? — Scott. 

24. A grammatical object may be governed by a transi- 
tive verfy a participle, or a preposition. 

25. The object of a transitive verb expresses the name, 
phrase, or clause in which the action of the verb is termi- 
nated. 

26. The object of a participle expresses the name, phrase, 
or clause in which the action of the participle terminates. 

27. The object of a preposition expresses the name, 
phrase, or clause in which the relation of the preposition 
terminates. 

28. The attribute of a sentence is the word completing 
the predicate and relating to the subject ; as, Tlie flowers 
are beautiful. 

29. Attributes belong to intransitive verbs and to the 
passive voice of transitive verbs. 

30. The attribute of a sentence may be : 

(1) An adjective ; as, 

And when the morn came dim and sad, 
And chill with early showers. — Hood. 

(2) A noun ; as. Time is the warp of life. 

(3) A pronoun ; as, It is /. 

(4) A participle ; as, 

Rest is not quitting 

The busy career ; 

Rest is the fitting 

Of self to its sphere.— J, S. Dwight, 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 55 

(5) A verb in the infinite mood ; as, To will is to do. 

(6) A phrase; as, 

" The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom ." 

(7) A clause ; as, One of the most useful effects of action is 
that it renders repose agreeable. 

HI.— ADJUNCTS. 

31. Adjuncts, or modifiers, are words which modify or 
limit the sense of the principal words in a sentence ; as, 

Under her torn hat glowed the wealth 

Of simple beauty and rustic health. — Whittier. 

32. Adjuncts may be : 

(1) Words ; as, Under her torn hat. 

(2) Phrases ; as, Glowed the wealth of simple beauty. 

(3) Clauses ; as, When I look upon the tombs of the great, 
every emotion of envy dies in me. — Irving. 

33. Adjuncts, in regard to their function, may be 
divided into three classes ; namely, adjective, adverbial, 
and explanatory. 

34. An adjective adjunct is an adjunct that is used to 
modify or limit a noun or pronoun ; as, All those 
wicked men deserve severe punishment. 

35. An adjective adjunct may be : 

(1) An article or an adjective ; as, The diligent scholar im- 
proves. 

(2) A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case ; as, Henry's 
brother has lost his hat. 

36. An adverbial adjunct is an adjunct used as an 
adverb ; as, He ran rapidly. 



56 ETYMOLOGY. 

37. An explanatory adjunct is an adjunct used to 
explain a preceding noun or pronoun ; as, My friend 
Joseph is well. 

38. Adjuncts are called primary when they modify the 
subject or the predicate in a sentence ; they are called 
secondary when they modify other adjuncts. 

IV.— PHRASES. 

39. A phrase is any group of words not containing a 
finite verb and its subject, and which, taken as a whole, 
performs the office of a single word ; as, In the morning. — 
Resting on their oars. — Being in time. 

40. A phrase may be substantive, adjective, adverbial, 
explanatory, or independent. 

(1) Substantive ; as, To serve God is our duty. — James prom- 
ises to write. — Writing a book is no easy task. 

(2) Adjective ; as, Faithful to his promise, he came at the ap- 
pointed time.— A thing of beauty is a joy forever.— The desire 
to do good is praiseworthy. — The book on the table is mine. 

(3) Adverbial ; as, The soldier was brave on the battlefield. — 
The boys walked along the road. 

(4) Explanatory ; as, Frank, the brother of Charles, is here. 

(5) Independent ; as, To come to the point, did you strike 
your friend ? 

41. A substantive phrase is a phrase that takes the 
place of a noun ; as, Always to do the right is the 

road to peace of soul. 

42. A substantive phrase may be : 

(1) Infinitive in form ; as, To strike the weak is cowardly. 

(2) Participial ; as, Reading bad books is injurious to the 
soul. These two forms are interchangeable. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 57 

43. A substantive phrase may be : 

(1) The subject of a sentence ; as, To forgive one's enemies is 
a Christian duty. 

(2) The object of a transitive verb or preposition ; as, He con- 
sidered the reading of Shakespeare very profitable. 

(3) The attribute of an intransitive or neuter verb ; as, He 
was ashamed to be seen there. 

44. An adjective phrase is a phrase that performs the 
functions of an adjective. in qualifying a noun or a pro- 
noun : 

(1) A noun ; as, 

Philosophy, baptized 
In the pure fountain of eternal love, 
Has eyes indeed. — Cowper, — The Task. 

(2) A pronoun ; as, Put not your trust in him with two faces. 

45. An- adverbial phrase is a phrase that performs the 
functions of an adverb in modifying a verb, an adjective, 
or another adverb : 

(1) A verb ; as, "The judge rode slowly down the lane." 

(2) An adjective ; as, The sailor was nimble in the rigging. 

(3) An adverb ; as, This is good enough for me. 

46. An explanatory phrase is a phrase that explains 
some other word or phrase in a sentence ; as, Lew Wallace, 
the author of "Hen Hur," was minister to Con- 
stantinople. 

47. An independent phrase is a phrase that has no 
grammatical connection with any other part of the sen- 
tence ; as, To be candid, I ivas in fault. Com- 
pleting in round numbers, there iverefive hundred 
persons present. 



58 ETYMOLOGY. 

48. An independent phrase may contain : 

(1) The name of a person addressed ; as, Morning is the best 
time to study, my dear friend. 

(2) A pleonasm; 1 as, A brave boy, he could not injure others. 

(3) A verb in the infinitive ; as, His conduct was, to say the 
least, highly reprehensible. 

(4) A participle ; as, Speaking candidly, I do not understand 
the question. 

49. Phrases are divided into simple, complex, and 
compound. 

50. A simple phrase is a phrase not limited by any 
word or by any other phrase ; as, Beneath the stars. 

51. A complex phrase is one that contains another 
phrase as an adjunct to its principal part ; as, Beneath the 
stars of heaven. 

52. A compound phrase is one composed of two or 
more phrases connected by a conjunction ; as, Going down 
and looking in. 

V.— PRINCIPAL WORDS AND THEIR MODIFIERS. 

53. The principal words in any sentence are the noun 
or pronoun, the verb and its participle, the adjective, and 
the adverb. 

54. A noun in a sentence may be modified : 

(1) By an article ; as, The library is a large one. 

(2) By an adjective ; as, All men desire to be happy. 

(3) By a noun or a pronoun in the possessive case ; as, A 
jiremaris life has its perils. 

(4) By an explanatory noun or pronoun ; as, The novelist 

1 A pleonasm is an emphatic repetition of the same idea. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 59 

Dickens gave readings in New York. — Alexander himself 
was there. 

(5) By a participle ; as, " Here stood a shattered archway 
plumed with ferns." — Tennyson. 

(6) By an adjective phrase; as, William, weary of fishing, 
turned his boat towards the shore. 

(7) By an adjective clause ; as, He endowed the college in 
which he was educated. 

(8) By an explanatory clause ; as, The belief that there is a 
purgatory was held by Plato. 

55. A verb may be modified : 

(1) By an adverb ; as, They drove rapidly. 

(2) By an adverbial phrase ; as, Fishes glide rapidly through 
the water. — Henry rode quickly through the toum. 

(3) By an adverbial clause ; as, I came that I might assist you. 

56. A participle may be modified : 

(1) By an object ; as, By deserving respect you will win it. 

(2) By an adverb ; as, The old sailor was discovered badly 
beaten. 

(3) By an adverbial phrase ; as, The youth inured to hard- 
ship can withstand great fatigue. 

57. An adjective may be modified : 

(1) By an adverb ; as, The man is very irritable. 

(2) By an adverbial phrase ; as, Be quick to hear, but slow 
to speak. 

(3) By an adverbial clause ; as, The distance was greater than 
I had imagined. 

58. An adverb may be modified : 

(1) By another adverb ; as, He labors most faithfully. 

(2) By a phrase or clause ; as, He acted conformably to the 
rules laid down. 



60 ETYMOLOGY. 

I.— EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS. 
I. Simple Sentences. 

Example 1.— Boys play. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. It is simple, because it con- 
tains but one proposition; declarative, because it expresses an affirma- 
tion. Boys is the subject, because it is that of which the sentence treats. 
Study is the predicate, because it is that which is said of the subject. 

Analyze the folloioing sentences as in the preceding 
example : 



1. Men talk. 

2. Students learn. 

3. Children cry. 

4. Time flies. 



5. Birds sing. 

6. Horses gallop. 

7. Dogs bark. 

8. Lions roar. 



Example 2. — Fire melts gold. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. 

The subject is fire ; the predicate, melts; gold is the object. 



Analyze the following sentences: 

4. Brutus stabbed Caesar. 

5. William defeated Harold. 

6. John bought peaches. 



1. Integrity inspires confidence 

2. Generosity makes friends. 

3. God loves us. 



Example 3* — Feathers are light. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. 

The subject is feathers ; the predicate is are ; and the attribute is light . 



Analyze the folloioing sentences: 

7. Knowledge is power. 

8. Union is strength. 

9. Diamonds are combustible. 



1. Lead is heavy. 

2. Gold is yellow. 

3. Stars are suns. 

4. The moon is a planet. 

5. Sailors are brave. 

(I Steam is a moving power. 



10. Ice is crystallized water. 

11. Climate affects plants. 

12. Heat is a mode of motion. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 61 

Example 4. — The old wooden clock stopped. 
This is a simple declarative sentence. 
The subject is clock ; the predicate is stopped. 
The subject is modified by the adjective adjuncts the, old, and 
wooden. 

Analyze the following sentences: 



1. The young speaker was ap- 

plauded. 

2. The large steamer sank. 

3. The weary little child slept. 



4. The wooden house fell. 

5. An honest man prospers. 

6. The dark clouds lower. 



Example 5. — The full moon sometimes shines brightly. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. 

The subject is moon ; the predicate is shines. 

The subject is modified by the adjective adjuncts the and full ; 
the predicate is modified by the adverbial adjuncts sometimes and 
brightly. 

Analyze the following sentences : 

1. The south wind blew softly. — 2. Industrious people rise early. — 
3. The strong north wind changed suddenly. — 4. All those various 
questions can be settled peaceably. — 5. The dark, threatening clouds 
were soon dissolved. — 6. Your venerable father will be cordially wel- 
comed. — 7. Mental inaction is mental rusting. — 8. The moon is a burnt 
cinder. 

n.— SECONDARY MODIFIERS. 

Example 1. — A most horrible catastrophe happened quite re- 
cently. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. 

The subject is catastrophe ; the predicate is happened. 

The subject is modified by the adjective adjuncts a and horrible; 
horrible is modified by the adverbial adjunct most. The predicate- 
verb happened is modified by the adverbial adjunct recently, and re- 
cently is modified by the adverbial adjunct quite. 



62 ETYMOLOGY. 

Analyze the following sentences: 

'1. Our last entertainment was highly enjoyed. — 2. People now 
travel very rapidly.— 3. Irving writes with ease, elegance, and grace. 
— 4. That very inconsiderate youth acted too hastily. — 5. Fair science 
frowned not on his humble birth. — 6. Trifles often lead to serious 
results. — 7. You are entirely too anxious. 

Example 2. — Young Edward always studies his difficult lessons 
thoroughly. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. 

The subject is Edward ; the predicate, studies; the object, lessons. 

The subject is modified by the adjective adjunct young ; the predi- 
cate is modified by the adverbial adjuncts always and thoroughly ; the 
object is modified by the adjective adjuncts his and difficult. 

Analyze the follozoing sentences: 

1. New York City has a very fine harbor. — 2. Some good artists oc- 
casionally paint pictures of inferior merit. — 3. Washington Irving is 
not a trustworthy historian.— 4. Many wild beasts inhabit the African 
continent.— 4. George caught a very large salmon. — 5. Obliging con- 
duct produces deserved esteem. 

Example 3. — Cartierwas a bold navigator. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is C artier ; the 
predicate, was; the attribute, navigator. 

The subject is unmodified ; the attribute is modified by the adjec- 
tive adjuncts a and bold. 

Analyze the folloioing sentences : 

1. Honesty is the best policy. — 2. Scott is an instructive writer. — 
3. Good execution is always aimed at by the true artist. — 4. Henry is 
a faithful boy. — 5. Cardinal Manning is the poor man's friend. — 6. 
Disappointment has too frequently been their fate. 

Example. — Knowledge and virtue elevate and purify the mind. 
This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is compound, 
consisting of knowledge and virtue, connected by the conjunction and. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 63 

The predicate is also compound, consisting of elevate and purify, con- 
nected by and. The object is mind. 

The subject is unmodified; the predicate is unmodified; the object 
is modified by the article the. 

Analyze the following sentences : 

I. Joy and sorrow are woven into the life of every man. — 2. King- 
doms and empires rise, flourish, and decay. — 3. Wealth, honor, and 
happiness forsake the indolent. — 4. Madison, Hamilton, and Jay dis- 
cussed the Constitution. — 5. Vanity and presumption have ruined many 
a promising youth. — 6. Pride and prejudice warp the noblest natures. — 
7. Tennyson and Browning are among the greatest poets of this century. 

/. Write a sentence on each of the folloiving words : 

Madison joy empires 

Hamilton sorrow honor 

Jay kingdoms happiness 

II. Write sentences containing any tivo of these words as- 
subject. 

III. Write sentences containing any tivo as object. 

IH.— SUBSTANTIVE PHRASES. 

Example 1. — To teach idle pupils is disagreeable work. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. 

The subject is the substantive phrase to teach idle pupils ; is dis- 
agreeable work is the predicate. 

The subject to teach is modified by the object pupils, and pupils is 
modified by the adjective adjunct idle. The predicate is, is modified 
by the attribute work, and work is modified by the adjective adjunct 
disagreeable. 

Example £.— Joseph deserves to be rewarded. 
This is a simple declarative sentence. 

The subject is Joseph ; the predicate-verb, deserves ; the object, to 
be rewarded. 



64 ETYMOLOGY. 

The subject is unmodified; the predicate is unmodified; the object 
is unmodified. 

Analyze the following sentences : 

1. To relieve the poor is our duty. —2. To die for one's country is 
a great honor. —3. It is our duty to promote peace and harmony among 
men.— 4. To be able to write well is a valuable accomplishment. — 5. 
To open a letter belonging to another is a penal offence. 

IV.— ADJECTIVE PHRASES. 

Example, — A mind conscious of no guilt reposes securely. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. 

The subject is mind ; the predicate, reposes. 

The subject is modified by the adjective phrase conscious of no 
guilt; the principal word, conscious, is modified by the adverbial 
phrase of no guilt, and guilt is modified by the adjective adjunct no. 

The predicate is modified by the adverbial adjunct securely. 

Analyze the follotving sentences : 

1. The esteem of wise men is the greatest of temporal encourage- 
ments. — 2. The bounty displayed on the earth equals the grandeur 
manifested in the heavens. — 3. •The way to acquire knowledge is to 
labor for it. — 4. His willingness to be just in the matter was apparent 
to all. 

V.— ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 

Example. — We took our small trunk with us. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. 

The subject is we; the predicate, took ; the object, trunk. 

The subject is unmodified ; the predicate is modified by the adverbial 
phrase with us ; the object is modified by the adjective adjuncts our 
and small. 

Analyze the following sentences: 

1. The two boys carried the basket of apples between them. — 2. 
Abstain from injuring others. — 3. In the spring the flowers will bloom. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 65 

— 4. Browning deals with the morbid in souls. He ranks among our 
greatest poets. He writes in a harsh and difficult style. 

VI.— EXPLANATORY AND INDEPENDENT PHRASES. 

Example. — To he candid, I was in fault. 
This is a simple declarative sentence. 
The subject is I; the predicate, was. 

The subject is unmodified ; the predicate- verb is modified by the 
adverbial phrase in fault. To he candid is an independent phrase. 

Analyze the following sentences: 

1. His conduct, generally speaking, was honorable. — 2. To speak 
plainly, your evil habits are your worst enemies.-^3. I was not aware 
of his being a lawyer. 

Vn.— COMPLEX PHRASES. 

Example. — They waited in great anxiety for the morning. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. 

The subject is they ; the predicate, ivaited. 

The subject is unmodified ; the predicate is modified by the com- 
plex adverbial phrase in great anxiety for the morning. The principal 
word of the first part, anxiety, is modified by the adjective adjunct 
great. The principal word of the second part, morning, is modified 
by the adjective adjunct the. 

Analyze the folloiuing sentences : 

1. We require clothing in the summer to protect the body from the 
heat of the sun. — 2. This sentence is not too difficult for me to analyze. 
— 3. The merchant offered the position to a man of integrity. — 4. In 
reading his friend's letter without permission he was guilty of a dishoir* 
orable act. 

VIIL— COMPOUND PHRASES. 

Example. — The maple-tree grows in this valley, and on yonder 
hills. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. 



66 ETYMOLOGY. 

The subject is maple-tree ; the predicate, grows. 

The subject is modified by the adjunct the. The predicate grows 
is modified by the compound adverbial phrase in this valley and on 
yonder hills, taken as a whole. The principal word of the first phrase 
is valley, which is modified by the adjective adjunct this ; the prin- 
cipal word of the second phrase is hills, which is modified by the 
adjective adjunct yonder. 

Analyze the following sentences: 

1. They were seen rising up and departing hastily. — 2. Our friend 
is always the same, in prosperity and under every misfortune. — 3. 
Some Indian tribes were wont to fight with stones, arrows, and spears. 

IX.— IMPERATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND EXCLAMATORY 

SENTENCES. 

Example 1. — Employ your time well. 

This is a simple imperative sentence. 

The subject is you (understood); the predicate, employ ; the object, 
time. Subject, unmodified ; predicate, modified by the adverbial ad- 
junct well ; object, modified by the adjective adjunct your. 

Example 2. — Has he a silver goblet ? 
A simple interrogative sentence. 
Subject, he ; predicate, has ; object, goblet. 

Subject unmodified ; predicate unmodified ; object, modified by the 
adjective adjuncts a and silver. 

Example 3. — How mournful the story is ! 
A simple exclamatory sentence. 
Subject, story ; predicate, is. 

The subject is modified by the adjective adjuncts the and mournful; 
mournful is modified by the adverbial adjunct how, 

Analyze the following sentences: 

1. Have you bought the Venetian blinds?— 2. Solomon, the son of 
David, built the temple of Jerusalem.— 3. Envy not the good luck of 



SENTENCE-BUILDING : ITS NATUKE. 67 

prosperous transgressors. — 4. How brightly the sun shines ! — 5. How 
the base soul rejoices in dishonorable deeds ! 

Analyze the following miscellaneous sentences : 

1. Lexicology is the science of words. — 2. Spelling is the art of ex- 
pressing words by their proper letters. — 3. Astronomers cannot count all 
the stars. — 4. What a beautiful sight the rising sun is ! — 5. Give the 
poor man an alms. — %. Men of few words are frequently men of many 
deeds. — 7. A small leak will sink a great ship. — 8. The telescope was 
invented towards the end of the sixteenth century. — 9. Consecrate the 
first thoughts of the day to God. — 10. The history of the humblest hu- 
man life is a tale of marvels. — 11. A day spent in idleness is a day 
lost. — 12. The service of God should be the great object of our life. — 
13. The arts prolong, comfort, and cheer human life. — 14. Longfellow 
is the favorite American poet. — 15. Peace of mind being lost, we lose 
the greatest happiness of life. — 16. The general at once crossed the 
river, engaged the enemy, and gained a complete victory. — 17. Thou 
shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain. — 18. Cultivate a 
taste for Christian art. — 

19. "Rome has inherited both sacred and profane learning." — 

20. " Man has a moral and a religious nature." — Cardinal Newman. — 

21. " She walks the water like a thing of life." — Byron. 



CHAPTER VIII.. 
SENTENCE-BUILDING : ITS NATURE. 

1. Besides the analysis of sentences, there is also the 
process of constructing and combining sentences. This 
process has been called sentence-building. 

2. Sentence-building is very simple and of general appli- 
cation. 



68 ETYMOLOGY. 

Every conversation carried on is an exercise in sentence-building. 
Whenever the pupil has been supplying words in a sentence, or trans- 
posing the parts of a sentence, or changing the sense of a sentence, or 
constructing a sentence, he has been sentence-building. Every recita- 
tion in which the pupil is made to express himself correctly ; every 
exercise in which he repeats or writes down the substance of his lesson 
in reading, or in history, or in geography, is a lesson in sentence- 
building. 

3. The object of sentence-building is to teach the pupil 
how to use the right word in the right place, according 
to correct grammatical forms of speech. 

4. The same thought may be expressed in many forms, 
each grammatically correct ; but there is always one form 
which expresses the thought more clearly and more 
forcibly than the others. 

5. The best forms of expression cannot be reached at 
once. They are the result of repeated trials. 

It is only after many efforts, much thought, and great painstaking, 
that the large majority of our best English writers have expressed 
themselves in the beautiful manner that makes of their compositions 
our models for all time. 

6. In sentence-building, the pupil should not aim too 
high. Let him seek to be natural, and always to express 
the idea as it presents itself to his mind. 

7. After the idea has been set down, it requires to be 
modified, and adapted to the sentences going before and 
following. 

8. In all sentence-building the pupil should strive to be 
grammatically correct. 

The pupil should know clearly what he wants to express. When the 
thought is clear, the expression can be made both clear and forcible. 



sentence-building: its nature. 69 

EXERCISES. 

/. Replace by a preposition and a noun the adjective that 
qualifies the subject : 

1. A prudent man will not murmur when he is reproved. — 2. Will- 
power over bodily organs may be increased by judicious physical exer- 
cise. — 3. An obedient man shall speak of victory.— 4. The honest man 
will always be trusted. — 5. The^o^Ye man will gain many friends. 

77. Replace the word italicized by a noun from the same 
root, and make the other necessary changes, in each of the 
folloiuing sentences : 

Examjile. — The meek are a source of edification to all = Tliose 
ivho practise meekness are a source of edification to all = They that are 
meekly disposed are a source of edification to all. 

1. The poor are worthy of our compassion and assistance. — 2. The 
obedient are certain to find favor withG-od. — 3. The prudent calculate 
the consequences of their actions. — 4. The humble deserve the gift of 
chastity. — 5. The vain-glorious seek happiness in human applause. 

III. Change the tvords in italics into the possessive case, 
and make the other necessary changes accordingly : 

1. Publish the virtues of a generous friend. — 2. Despise the wiles 
of the flatterer. — 3. The style of Cardinal Newman is greatly ad- 
mired. — 4. God blesses the projects of a virtuous man. — 5. The poison 
of the asp is in the tongue of the slanderer. 

IV. Throio the following sentences into as many forms 
as there are divisions : 

Example. — Let our lives be active \ according as our hearts are 
calm. 

We may construct this sentence in two ways : 

1. In proportion to the calmness of our hearts let our lives be active. 

2. The calmer our hearts, the more active be our lives. 

This last is the form in which Cardinal Newman expressed the idea. 



70 ETYMOLOGY. 

1. Washington Irving | is more elegant as an author § | than he | is 
accurate as an historian. 2 

2. Like a thing of life » | she walks the water. 2 

3. I know 1 | from our old books 2 | that Joseph came of old to Glas- 
tonbury. 3 

4. This place will I not leave * | until I needs must go ' 2 | my death 
to meet. 3 William Morris, — Atalanta's Race. 

5. To open, unauthorized, a letter addressed to another, l | is con- 
sidered a felony before the law 2 | and a dishonor before society. 3 

6. My friends, | the excesses of our youth l | are | drafts 2 | upon our 
old age. 3 | 

In the foregoing examples other words may be introduced in order 
to convey the full sense in the new arrangement. 

V. Replace the words in italics by a common adjective, 
and make the other necessary changes accordingly : 

1. The soldier that is courageous does honor to his colors. — 2. The 
heart that is humble obtains many blessings from God. — 3. The pupil 
that is attentive succeeds. — 4. The opinion of the fault-finder is of 
small avail. — 5. The young man that is modest is esteemed. 

VI. Change the folloioing sentences to others expressing 
opposite ideas : 

1. The proud will be humbled.— 2. The wicked will be punished. — 
3. The approval of conscience brings peace of soul. — 4. Old age pos- 
sesses experience. — 5. Youth is a spendthrift of time. 

VII. Replace the words in italics by a common adjective 
form having the same root, and make all other necessary 
changes : 

1. Purity shall receive a special reward in Heaven. — 2. Courage 
does not shrink in the presence of danger. — 3. Prudence does not act 
without due deliberation. — 4. Envy is the passion of small souls. — 5. 
Fickleness never accomplishes anything great. 



SENTENCE-BUILDING : ITS NATUKE. 71 

VIII. Construct sentences each of which shall contain one 
of tjie folloiving words and its opposite : 

Proud, deliberate, begun, yield, bitter. 

IX. Connect an additional proposition with each of the 
sentences here given by means of the ivord when : 

1. We should offer our hearts to God . 2. We write a good 

sentence . 3. We lead a Christian life . 4. We are cer- 
tain of having our prayers heard . 5. Why think to live 

long ? 

X. Transpose the terms of the proposition, by placing 
the subject before the verb, and the attribute after the verb. 

1. The two eyes of history are geography and chronology. — 2. The 
most beautiful ornament of the soul is innocence.— 3. The passion of 
noble hearts is love of country. — 4. The horror of a Christian soul 
is slander. 

XL Add a second proposition, which shall be a consequence 
of the first, in the following sentences: 

1. Science is a precious treasure; therefore 2. Human respect 

is contemptible; therefore 3. The poor are our brethren; there- 
fore 4. Appearances are often deceitful; therefore 5. Com- 
merce and industry are the fortune of a country; 6. We should 

shun bad companions ; because 

XII Vary the construction of the folloiving sentences 
without changing the meaning : 

1. The wisest is he who does not believe himself to be wise. — 2. We 
expose ourselves to lose all in striving to gain all. — 3. Necessity is the 
mother of industry. — 4. Virtue is a certain mark of a noble heart. — 
5. The two-faced man is sooner or later unmasked. — 6. " I made shift 
to make two or three new waistcoats, which I hoped would serve me a 
good while," — J)efoe ? — Robinson Crusoe, 



72 ETYMOLOGY. 

XIII. Add a second clause, which shall contain the op- 
posite of the word in italics : 

1. Virtue is a garment of honor:— 2. The wise man knows that he 
knows but little: — 3. Deep rivers flow in silence: — 4. Among the base, 
merit begets envy : — 5. Anger stirs up fury. 

XIV. An excellent practice in sentence-building is to en- 
large a simple proposition into several consecutive sentences, 
each more developed than the preceding one. 

Example, — Take the simple sentence, The farmer sat watching 
the fire. 

1. Let us first describe the subject farmer : 

In his arm-chair, warm and comfortable, sat the farmer, watching 
the fire. 

2. Let us then describe how he sat : 

Indoors, warm and comfortable, by the fire-place, idly sat the 
farmer, watching the flames and the smoke- wreaths struggling upward 
from the fire. 

3. Finally, let us look at the farmer as the poet describes him sit- 
ting by the fire : 

" Indoors, warm by the wide-mouthed fire-place, idly the farmer 
Sat in his elbow-chair, and watched how the flames and the smoke-wreaths 
Struggled together like foes in a burning city. ,, — Longfellow,— Evangeline. 

In the same manner, out of each of the following sentences, 
construct three sentences, giving attributes, first to the sub- 
ject ; second, to the predicate ; third, to the attribute or 
object. 

1. The farmer's shadow mocked him. 

(i) 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) Longfellow has developed the idea as follows : 



SENTENCE-BUILDING : ITS NATURE. 73 

" Behind him, 
Nodding and mocking along the wall, with gesture fantastic, 
Darted his own huge shadow, and vanished away into darkness."— Ibid. 

2. The spiritual world is present. 

a) 

2) 

?) • 

(4) Cardinal Newman has developed this idea in the following 
eloquent and beautiful manner: 

"The world of spirits, then, though unseen, is present; present, not future, not 
distant. It is not ahove the sky, it is not beyond the grave; it is now and here; the 
kingdom of God is among us."— Parochial and Plain Sermons. 

3. He rode into the castle court. 

a) 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) Tennyson has thus developed this sentence : 

" Then rode Geraint into the castle court, 
His charger trampling many a prickly star 
. Of sprouted thistle on the broken stones. 1 '— Geraint and Enid. 

4. We all know that everything here below is fleeting. 

a) 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) Browning has developed this thought as follows : 

M Time fleets, youth fades, life is an empty dream. 
It is the echo of time; and he whose heart 
Beat first beneath a human heart, whose speech 
Was copied from a human tongue, can never 
Recall when he was living yet knew not this.'"— Paracelsus, 

Note how the generalities of the first proposition are reduced to 
particulars in Browning's development : everything here below = time, 
youth, life ; we all Jcnoiv = he whose heart first beat beneath a human 
heart , . . . can never recall when he teas living yet knew not this. 



74 ETYMOLOGY. 

5. A secluded life finds many a lesson in Nature. 

a) 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) In the following manner does Shakespeare express the same 

idea: 

" And this our life, exempt from public haunt, 
Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, 
Sermons in stones, and good in everything. "—As You Like It. 

XV. Write six short sentences describing the persons and 
things in the room in which you now are. 

Add attributes or adjuncts to the principal parts in each 
of the sentences that you have just written. 

XVI. Translate into your own words the followi7ig 
passage : 

" What doth the poor man's son inherit? 
Stout muscles and a sinewy heart, 
A hardy frame, a hardier spirit. 
King of two hands, he does his part 
In every useful toil and art ; 
A heritage, it seems to me, 
A king might wish to hold in fee." 

— James Russell Lowell. 



CHAPTER IX. 

VERBS. 



I. A verb is a word that expresses being, action, or the 
being acted upon ; as, Truth is; Mary studies her lesson; 
Tlie horse runs ; James was punished. 



VERBS. 75 

2. Verbs may be classified as regards their form and as 
regards their meaning. 

3. The grammatical form of the verb is the change the 
verb undergoes in expressing time and state of being, action, 
or passiveness. 

4. The grammatical meaning of the verb is the verb as 
taken in a transitive, intransitive, or unipersonal sense. 

I. CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS AS TO FORM. 

5. Verb-forms are either finite or infinitive. 

6. The infinitive forms are those forms of the verb 
which are independent of person and number ; as, to read, 
writing. 

7. The infinitive forms are twofold ; namely, the root- 
infinitive and the participial infinitive. 

8. The root-infinitive is the simplest verbal form that 
may be united with the preposition to ; as, to he, to do, 
to speak. Be, do, and speak are called the roots of the 
verb. 

9. The participial infinitive is the root of the verb 
with the ending -ing ; as, sleeping, rowing. The parti- 
cipial infinitive is known as the imperfect participle. 

10. By reason of the absence of limitations of person 
and number in the root-infinitive and the participial infini- 
tive, these forms assume the functions of other parts of 
speech; as, For me to dde is gain; The rising of the sun 
is a beautiful sight. 

In these sentences, the root-infinitive to die and the participial 
infinitive rising are subjects of the verb is, and perform the func- 
tions of nouns. 

The infinitives may also be the object of a verb or of a preposition. 



76 ETYMOLOGY. 

11. Verbs are divided as regards their finite forms — 
that is, as regards the forms of their principal parts — into 
three classes; namely, regular, irregular, and defective. 

12. A regular verb is a verb that forms its simple 
imperfect tense and perfect participle by the addition of -d 
or -ed to the root; as, reap, reaped; wish, wished. 

13. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form its 
imperfect tense and perfect participle by adding -d or -ed 
to the root; as, know, knew, known. 

14. A defective verb is a verb that forms no participle, 
and is not used in all the moods and tenses; as, can, would. 

Modern grammarians call the regular verbs weak, and several of 
the irregular verbs, strong. 

To the weak verbs also belong those verbs whose past tense ends in 
t. This t is, in nearly every instance, a contraction of the more regular 
form in -d or -ed. (Orthog. chap. i. 17.) 

The strong verbs are those that form their imperfect tense by a 
change of vowel only; as, get, got; speak, spoke. — The perfect participle 
of strong verbs formerly ended in n or en ; as, spoken. 

II. CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS AS TO MEANING. 

15. Verbs are divided, as regards their grammatical 
meaning, into three classes : transitive, intransitive, and 
unipersonal. 

16. A transitive verb is a verb that expresses action 
communicated from a subject to an object; as, The boy 
reads the book. 

17. An intransitive verb is a verb that expresses being, 
or state, or action not communicated to an object ; as, 
John awakes; George ivalks. 

18. A unipersonal verb is a verb used only in the third 
person singular and with the pronoun it ; as, it rains ; it 



VERBS. 77 

seems good; methinks = it thinks me, or it appears 
to me. 

The form methinks is erroneously considered an affectation for / 
think. On the contrary, it is a remnant of a whole class of uniper- 
sonal verbs employed in older stages of the language, and is not to 
be construed into the expression I think. Some grammarians call the 
unipersonal verb impersonal. 

III.— MODIFICATION OF VERBS. 

19. Verbs have five kinds of modification or inflection : 
voice, mood, tense, person, and number. 

Voice. 

20. Voice is a modification of transitive verbs which 
distinguishes their subject as acting upon an object, or as 
being acted upon. 

21. There are two voices, the active and the pas- 
sive. 

22. The active voice is that form of the verb in which 
the subject acts upon an object ; as, Wolfe defeated 
Montcalm. 

23. The passive voice is that form of the verb in which 
the subject is acted upon ; as, Montcalm was defeated 
by Wolfe. 

In the passive voice the object of the action becomes the subject 
of the verb. When the same verb is employed in both voices, that 
which was the object of the verb in the active voice becomes its sub- 
ject in the passive voice. 

24. The passive voice is formed by the addition of the 
perfect participle of the principal verb to the auxiliary be 
through all its inflections ; as, The spell is broken. 



78 ETYMOLOGY. 

A few intransitive verbs assume the passive form even while used 
in an active sense ; as, 

" Octavius is already come to Rome."— Shakespeare. 

25. English writers use other forms of the passive ; as, 
The house is being built. 

This is equivalent to the form, The house is unbuilding = on- 
building = in-building = in the act of building. 

Mood. 

26. Mood is that modification which shows the particu- 
lar manner in which the verb is employed. 

27. There are five moods ; namely, the infinitive, the 
indicative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the im- 
perative. 

28. The infinitive mood is a form of the verb used to 
express action or being without limitation of person and 
number ; as, / came to see him. 

The infinitive mood is used without any subject, and may itself be 
subject or object. 

In modern English, the infinitive is expressed by to before the verb. 
In old English, it was expressed by the suffix an ; as, drinc-an, to 
drink. 

29. The indicative mood is a form of the verb used to 
express a direct assertion, or to ask a direct question ; as, 
John is there ; Is John there ? 

30. The potential mood is a form of the verb used to 
express possibility, liberty, obligation, or necessity : 

(1) Possibility ; as, " A breath can make them as a breath has 
made." 



VERBS. 79 



(2) Liberty ; as, 



" Men may come and men may go, 
But I go on forever." — Tennyson, — The Brook. 

(3) Obligation ; as, The merchant should pay his debts. 

(4) Necessity; as, 

" But men must work, and women must weep, 
Though storms be sudden and waters deep/' 

— Kingslet,— The Three Fishers. 

Some modern grammarians identify the potential with the sub- 
junctive mood. 

31. The subjunctive mood expresses what is doubtful, 
supposed or conditional, and contingent or dependent : 

(1) Doubtful ; as, Advise if this be worth attempting. 

(2) Supposed or conditional; as, I would go if I were you. 

(3) Contingent or dependent ; as, If thou keep promise, I 
shall end this strife. 

32. The imperative mood expresses command, en- 
treaty, desire, request, or exhortation : 

(1) Command; as, 

" Blow, blow, thou winter wind ! 
Thou art not so unkind 
As man's ingratitude."— Shakespeare,— King Lear. 

(2) Entreaty ; as, Give us this day our daily bread. 

(3) Desire ; as, Be mine the honor. 

(4) Request ; as, Let me call on you to-morrow. 

(5) Exhortation ; as, Arise, go forth, and conquer as of old. 

33. The imperative mood has only one person ; namely, 
the second person, in the singular and plural numbers. 

34. The imperative mood invariably contains the root 
of the verb ; as, Sing thou ; Play ye. 



80 ETYMOLOGY. 

In the forms let us go, let him speak, let is the imperative of com- 
mand or entreaty, and go and speak are verbs in the infinitive mood. 

Tense. 

35. Tense is a modification of the verb which distin- 
guishes the time of action or of state of being. 

36. There are six tenses : the present, the imperfect, 
the perfect, the pluperfect, the future, and the future per- 
fect. 

37. The present tense is the form of the verb that ex- 
presses present time ; as, He is. — The girl speaks. 

38. The imperfect tense is the form of the verb that 
expresses action or state of being in a past time ; as, I wrote 
a letter. I was speaking. 

39. The perfect tense is the form of the verb that ex- 
presses action or state of being as completed within the 
present time ; as, / have written a letter to-day. 

40. The pluperfect tense is the form of the verb that 
expresses action or state of being as completed at or before 
some specified past time ; as, / had written this page 
when he arrived. 

41. The future tense is the form of the verb that 
expresses action or state of being in some time to come ; 
as, / shall go to-night. 

42. The future perfect tense is the form of the verb 
that expresses action or state of being as about to be com- 
pleted at or before a specified future time ; as, / shall 
have written my letter by noon. 

43. In English there is change of form only in the 
present and the imperfect tense. All other tenses are ex- 
pressed by means of auxiliary verbs. 



VERBS. 81 

Number and Person. 

44. The verb follows the number and person of the 
noun or pronoun with which it is connected. 

45. The verb admits of two numbers through all its 
tenses ; namely, the singular and the plural. 

46. The verb admits of three persons in both num- 
bers ; namely, the first, second, and third. Thus : 

Singular. Plural. 

First person. I wait, We wait, 

Second person. Thou wait-est, Ye or you wait, 

Third person. He wait-s or wait-eth ; They wait. 

47. The verbal root suffers modification in the second 
and third persons singular. 

48. In the second person singular the modification is 
-t, -st, or -est ; as shalt 9 wouldst, heedest. 

49. In modern English the termination of the second 
person singular is -st or -est ; but in old English it was -t. 
We have remnants of the older form in the words wilt, shall, 
art. 

50. Except in poetry or solemn prose, -s is the usual 
suffix to the third person singular ; as, He lives in vain 
who lives for self. 

' ' He prayeth best, who loveth best 
All things both great and small." 

— Coleridge, — The Ancient Mariner. 

51. Four principal parts enter into the conjugation of 
every complete verb ; namely, the present, the imperfect, 
the imperfect participle, and the perfect participle : 

(1) The present is the verbal root that enters into the present 
tense of the infinitive mood ; as he in the verb to he. 



82 ETYMOLOGY. 

(2) The imperfect is the imperfect tense of the indicative mood, 
simple form ; as, was, loved. 

(3) The imperfect participle is the verbal root, with -ing 
added; as, being, loving. This is also called the present 
participle. 

In old English this participle was formed by the suffix -inde, 
-ende, or -and. 

(4) The perfect participle is the verbal root with the suffix -en 
or -ed ; as, been, loved, handed. 

52. These are called the principal parts, because from 
them and by means of them all the other parts of the verb 
are formed. 

53. A verb that is lacking in any of the principal parts 
is called a defective verb. 

IV.— CONJUGATION OF VEKBS. 

54. The conjugation of a verb is the regular arrange- 
ment of the verb in all its moods, tenses, persons, and 
numbers. 

Auxiliary Verbs. 

55. An auxiliary verb is a verb that aids in the conju- 
gation of other verbs. 

56. The auxiliaries are be, do, have, shall, will, may, 
can, and must. 

57. The auxiliary verbs do, be, will, and have are often 
used as principal verbs ; as, George does tvell ; I am 
here; God ivills some things, and other things He permits ; 
Tliomas has money. 

The other auxiliaries are defective. Will has a negative form nill. 
Must has a provincial equivalent in the word mun. I mun go = I 
must go. The word mun originally meant to think, to consider. 



VERBS. 



83 



58. The principal parts of the auxiliaries are :- 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


do 


did 


be 


was 


have 


had 


shall 


should 


will 


would 


may 


might 


can 


could 


must 


must 



doing 
being 
having 



Perfect Participle. 
done 
been 
had 



Forms of Conjugation. 

59. Verbs admit of four forms of conjugation ; namely, 
the affirmative, the negative, the interrogative, and the 
negative-interrogative. 

60. The affirmative form is the form in which a state- 
ment, whether direct or indirect, is made. 

61. The direct-affirmative form may be simple, em- 
phatic, progressive, or intentional. 

62. All transitive and intransitive verbs admit of these 
four forms of affirmation in the present and imperfect 
tenses of the indicative mood. Thus : — 



Pres. I write, 
Imperf. I wrote. 



Emphatic. 
I do write, 
I did write. 



I am writing, 
I was writing. 



Intentional. 
I am going to write, 
I was going to write. 



(1) The simple form expresses action without the aid of aux- 
iliaries. 

(2) The emphatic form expresses action with the aid of the 
auxiliaries do and did. 

(3) The progressive form expresses a continuance of action 
through all the moods and tenses. 

(4) The intentional form expresses action about to be done, 



84 ETYMOLOGY. 

and is formed by the addition of the word going, with the 
infinitive of the verb, to the verb be in all its moods and 
tenses. 

63. The negative form of a verb is the form employed 
in expressing negation or denial ; as, William does not 
play. 

64. A verb is conjugated negatively in its finite forms 
by placing the adverb not after the verb or after its first 
auxiliary; as, he speaks not ; lie does not speak; he 
has not spoken. 

65. A verb is conjugated negatively in its infinitive 
forms by placing the adverb not before: 

(1) The infinitive ; as, Not to speak, not to have spoken. 

(2) The participle ; as, Not speaking, not having spoken. 

66. The interrogative form of a verb is the form 
employed in asking a question; as, Can he read? Shall 
I go? 

67. A verb is conjugated interrogatively by placing 
the subject immediately after the verb or after the first 
auxiliary; as, Has man the right to judge his neighbors? 

68. The interrogative form is used only in the tenses of 
the indicative and the potential mood. 

69. The subject is also placed after the verb : 

(1) In the indicative mood; as, 

"Up rose old Barbara Fritchie then 
Bowed with her four score years and ten."— Whittier. 

(2) In the subjunctive mood, when the conditional circum- 
stance is expressed without the conjunction; as, Were I 
present, I would have helped you —If I ivere prese?it, I 
would have helped you. 



VERBS. 85 

70. The negative-interrogative form of the verb is 
that form in which a question is asked negatively ; as, 
Shall I not stay ? 

71. A verb is conjugated negatively and interrogatively 
by placing the subject and the adverb not after the auxil- 
iary ; as, May I not write ? Does he not speak ? 

In familiar speech questions and negations are expressed by means 
of the present and the imperfect indicative of the auxiliary do ; as, 
Does he sing? Did he not sing? He does not sing. 

The negative-imperative also employs the auxiliary do ; thus the 
form Do not speak is of more general usage than the form Speak not, 

V.— CONJUGATION OF THE VEKB HAVE. 1 

Principal Parts. 

Present. Imperfect. Imperfect Participle. Perfect Participle. 

Have. Had. Having. Had. 

Infinitive Mood. 
Present Tense. Perfect Tense. 

To have. To have had. 

Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have, 1. We have, 

2. Thou hast, 2. You have, 

3. He has; 3. They have. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had, 1. We had, 

2. Thou hadst, 2. You had. 

3. He had ; 3. They had. 

1 Save is a transitive verb used only in the Active Voice. 



86 ETYMOLOGY. 

Perfect Tense. 

Signs: Have, hast, has. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have had, 1. We have had, 

2. Thou hast had, 2. You have had. 

3. He has had ; 3. They have had. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Signs : Had, hadst. 
Singular- Plural. 

1. I had had, 1. We had had. 

2. Thou hadst had, 2. You had had. 

3. He had had; 3. They had had. 

Future Tense. 

Signs: Shall, will. 1 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have, 1. We shall have, 

2. Thou wilt have, 2. You will have, 

3. He will have ; 3. They will have. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Signs : Shall have, will have. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have had, 1. We shall have had, 

2. Thou wilt have had, 2. You will have had, 

3. He will have had; 3. They will have had. 

1 Shall in the first person foretells ; used in the second and third persons, it 
promises, commands, or threatens ; as, "7 shall go to-morrow."— "You shall go 
without fail, or suffer the consequences" 

Will, used in the first person, promises or intimates a determination ; in the 
second and third persons, it only foretells ; as, " I will go without fail"—" They 
will go, if possible" (See Introductory Etymology, pp. 71, 72.) 



VERBS. 87 

Potential Mood. 
Present Tense. 
Signs : May, can, or must. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have, 1. We may have, 

2. Thou mayst have, 2. You may have, 

3. He may have ; 3. They may have. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Signs: Might, could, would, or should. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have, 1. We might have, 

2. Thou mightst have, 2. You might have, 

3. He might have; 3. They might have. 

Perfect Tense. 

Signs : May have, can have, or must have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have had, 1. We may have had, 

2. Thou mayst have had, 2. You may have had, 

3. He may have had; 3. They may have had. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Signs : Might have, could have, would have, or should have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have had, 1. We might have had, 

2. Thou mightst have had, 2. You might have had, 

3. He might have had ; 3. They might have had. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have, 1. If we have, 

2. If thou have, 2. If you have, 

3. If he have; 3. If they have. 



88 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had, , 1. If we had, 

2. If thou hadst, or had, 2. If you had, 

3. If he had; 3. If they had. 

Imperative Mood. 
Present Tense. 





Singular. 






Plural. 


2. Have thou, or do thou have. 2. 


Have 


you, or do you have. 






Participles. 






Imperfect. 




Perfect. 




Preperfect. 


Having. 




Had. 




Having had. 



VL— CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE. 1 
Principal Parts. 



Present. Imperfect 


Imperfect Participle. 


Perfect Participle. 


Be. Was. 


Being. 
Infinitive Mood. 




Been. 


Present Tense. 




Perfect Tense. 


To be. 




To have been. 




Indicative Mood. 






Singular. 


Present Tense. 




Plural. 


1. I am, 




1. 


We are. 


2. Thou art, 




2. 


You are, 


3. He is ; 




3. 


They are. . 


Singular. 


Imperfect Tense. 




Plural. 


1. I was, 




1. 


We were, 


2. Thou wast, 




2. 


You were, 


3. He was; 




3. 


They were. 



1 For the origin of the forms am, was, be, see Development of Old English 
Thought, p. 6. 



VERBS. 



89 



Perfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. I have been, 1. We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 

3. He has been ; 3. They have been. 



Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 

3. He had been ; 3. They had been. 



Singular. 

1. I shall be, 

2. Thou wilt be, 

3. He will be; 



Future Tense. 



Plural. 

1. We shall be, 

2. You will be, 

3. They will be. 



Future Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 

2. Thou wilt have been, 2. You will have been, 

3. He will have been; 3. They will have been. 



Potential Mood. 
Present Tense. 



1. I may be, 

2. Thou mayst be, 

3. He may be; 



Plural. 

1. We may be, 

2. You may be, 

3. They may be. 



Imperfect Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I might be, 

2. Thou mightst be, 

3. He might be ; 



Plural. 

1. We might be, 

2. You might be, 

3. They might be. 



90 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 

2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 

3. He may have been ; 3. They may have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 

2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 

3. He might have been ; 3. They might have been. 



Singular. 

1. If I be, 

2. If thou be, 

3. If he be; 



Subjunctive Mood. 
Present Tense. 



Imperfect Tense. 



1. If I were, 

2. If thou were, or wert, 

3. If he were; 



Plural. 

1. If we be, 

2. If you be, 

3. If they be. 



1. If we were, 

2. If you were, 

3. If they were. 



Imperative Mood. 
Present Tense. 





Singular. 






Plural. 


2 


. Be thou, 


or do thou be. 2. 


Be 


you, or do you be, 








Participles. 








Imperfect. 




Perfect. 




Preperfect. 




Being. 




Been. 




Having been. 



VIL— CONJUGATION OF THE TRANSITIVE VERB LOVE. 
Active Voice. 







Principal Parts. 




Present. 


Imperfect. 


Imperfect Participle. 


Perfect Participle. 


Love. 


Loved. 


Loving. 


Loved. 



VERBS. 
Infinitive Mood. 



Present Tense. 
To love. 



Perfect Tense. 

To have loved. 



91 



Singular. 

1. I love, 

2. Thoulovest, 

3. He loves; 



Indicative Mood. 
Present Tense. 



Imperfect Tense. 



1. I loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 

3. He loved ; 



Plural. 

1. We love, 

2. You love, 

3. They love. 

Plural. 

1. We loved, 

2. You loved, 

3. They loved. 



Perfect Tense. 

Signs : Have, hast, has. 



1. I have loved, . 

2. Thou hast loved, 

3. He has loved ; 



Plural. 

1. We have loved, 

2. You have loved, 

3. They have loved. 



Singular. 

1. I had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 

3. He had loved ; 



Pluperfect Tense. 
Sign : Had. 



Plural. 

1. We had loved, 

2. You had loved, 

3. They had loved. 



Singular. 

1. I shall love, 

2. Thou wilt love, 

3. He will love ; 



Future Tense. 

Signs : Shall, will. 



Plural. 

1. We shall love, 

2. You will love, 

3. They will love. 



92 ETYMOLOGY. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Signs : Shall or will have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 

2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved, 

3. He will have loved ; 3. They will have loved. 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 

Signs : May, can, or must. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may love, 1. We may love, 

2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 

3. He may love ; 3. They may love. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Signs : Might, could, would, or should. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might love, 1. We might love, 

2. Thou mightst love, 2. ' You might love, 

3. He might love; 3. They might love. 

Perfect Tense. 

Signs : May have, can have, or must have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved. 

2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 

3. He may have loved; 3. They may have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Signs : Might have, could have, would have, or should have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 

2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 

3. He might have loved; 3. They might have loved. 



VERBS. 93 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If thou love, 2. If you love, 

3. If he love; 3. If they love. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 

2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 

3. If he loved; 3. If they loved. 

Imperative Mood. 
Present Tense. 



Singular. 






Plural. 




i thou, or do thou love. 3. 


Love 


you, or do you 


love. 




Participles. 








Imperfect. 


Perfect. 




Preperfect. 




Loving. 


Loved. 




Having loved. 





VIIL— CONJUGATION OF THE TRANSITIVE VERB LOVE. 

Passive Voice. 

Principal Parts. 

Present. Imperfect. Imperfect Participle. Perfect Participle. 

Love. Loved. Loving. Loved; 

Infinitive Mood. 
Present Tense. Perfect Tense. 

To be loved. To have been loved. 



1 


Indicative Mood. 




Singular. 


Present Tense. 


Plural. 


1. I am loved, 


1. 


We are loved, 


2. Thou art loved 


2. 


You are loved, 


3. He is loved ; 


3. 


They are loved 



94 ETYMOLOGY. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was loved, 1. We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved, 

3. He was loved ; 3. They were loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved, 1. We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, 2. You have been loved, 

3. He has been loved ; 3. They have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 

3. He had been loved ; 3. They had been loved. 

Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall be loved, 1. We shall be loved, 

2. Thou wilt be loved, 2. You will be loved, 

3. He will be loved ; 3. They will be loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been loved, 1. We shall have been loved, 

2. Thou wilt have been loved, 2. You will have been loved, 

3. He will have been loved ; 3. They will have been loved. 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved, 1. We may be loved, 

2. Thou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved, 

3. He may be loved ; 3. They may be loved. 



VERBS. 95 

Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. I might be loved, 1. We might be loved, 

2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved, 

3. He might be loved ; 3. They might be loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been loved, 1. We may have been loved, 

2. Thou mayst have been loved, 2. You may have been loved, 

3. He may have been loved ; 3. They may have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been loved, 1. We might have been loved, 

2. Thou mightst have been loved, 2. You might have been loved, 

3. He might have been loved ; 3. They might have been loved. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be loved, 1. If we be loved, 

2. If thou be loved, 2. If you be loved, 

3. If he be loved; 3. If they be loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were loved, 1. If we were loved, 

2. If thou wert, or were loved, 2. If you were loved, 

3. If he were loved ; 3. If they were loved. 

Imperative Mood. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. 2. Be thou loved, or do thou be loved. 
Plural. 2. Be you loved, or do you be loved. 



96 ETYMOLOGY. 

Participles. 

Imperfect. Perfect. 

Being loved. Loved. Having been loved. 



IX.— PROGRESSIVE FORM OF THE VERB STUDY 
Principal Parts of the Simple Verb. 
Present. Imperfect. Imperfect Participle. Perfect 



Study. Studied. Studying. Studied. 

Infinitive Mood. 
Present Tense. Perfect Tense. 

To be studying. To have been studying. 

Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am studying, 1. We are studying, 

2. Thou art studying, 2. You are studying, 

3. He is studying ; 3. They are studying. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was studying, 1. We were studying, 

2. Thou wast studying, 2. You Were studying, 

3. He was studying ; 3. They were studying. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been studying, 1. We have been studying, 

2. Thou hast been studying, 2. You have been studying, 

3. He has been studying; 3. They have been studying. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been studying, 1. We had been studying, 

2. Thou hadst been studying, 2. You had been studying, 

3. He had been studying; 3. They had been studying. 



VERBS. 97 

Future Tense. 

Plural. 

1. I shall be studying, 1. We shall be studying, 

2. Thou wilt be studying, 2. You will be studying, 

3. He will be studying ; 3. They will be studying. 

Future Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been studying, 1. We shall have been studying, 

2. Thou wilt have been studying, 2. You will have been studying, 

3. He will have been studying ; 3. They will have been studying. 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be studying, 1. We may be studying, 

2. Thou mayst be studying, 2. You may be studying. 

3. He may be studying ; 3. They may be studying. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be studying, 1. We might be studying, 

2. Thou mightst be studying, 2. You might be studying, 

3. He might be studying ; 3. They might be studying. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been studying, 1. We may have been studying, 

2. Thou mayst have been studying, 2. You may have been studying, 

3. He may have been studying; 3. They may have been studying. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been studying, 1. We might have been studying, 

2. Thou mightst have been studying, 2. You might have been studying, 

3. He might have been studying ; 3. They might have been studying. 



98 ETYMOLOGY. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be studying, 1. If we be studying, 

2. If thou be studying, 2. If you be studying, 

3. If he be studying ; 3. If they be studying. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were studying, 1. If we were studying, 

2. If thou were or wert studying, 2. If you were studying, 

3. If he were studying; 3. If they were studying. 

Imperative Mood. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. 2. Be thou studying, or do thou be studying. 
Plural. 2. Be you studying, or do you be studying. 

Participles. 

Imperfect. Perfect. Preperfect. 

Being studying. Having been studying. 



REMARKS ON THE CONJUGATIONS. 

72. In the indicative mood, the verb is conjugated in all 
six tenses. 

73. In the potential mood, the verb is conjugated in 
four tenses ; namely, the present, the imperfect, the perfect, 
and the pluperfect. 

74. The subjunctive mood is generally represented as 
having two tenses ; namely, the present and the imperfect. 
But this mood in reality admits equally well of the perfect 

ad the pluperfect tense. Thus the verb love can be conju- 
^d as follows : 



VERBS. 99 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have loved, 1. If we have loved, 

2. If thou have loved, 2. If you have loved, 

3. If he have loved, 3. If they have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had loved, 1. If we had loved, 

2. If thou had or hadst loved, 2. If you had loved, 

3. If he had loved ; 3. If they had loved. 

75. The subjunctive mood is usually introduced by the 
conjunctions if, though, that, unless, lest, except. 

Sometimes the subjunctive mood retaios precisely the same forms 
as the indicative mood, and sometimes it differs from the indicative 
as here conjugated. 

76. In the imperative mood, the verb is conjugated in 
one tense ; namely, the present. 

The imperative mood is sometimes conjugated in the future tense, 
in the second and third persons, as follows : 1 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Thou shalt write, 2. You shall write, 

3. He shall write; 3. They shall write. 

So, in the wording of the Ten Commandments, the idea expressed 
is one of command, not of futurity; as, Thou shalt not steal, 
Thou shalt not bear false witness. 

77. In the infinitive mood, the verb has two forms ; 
namely, the present and the perfect. 

1 Adams, The English Language, p. 109. 



100 ETYMOLOGY. 

These forms do not really carry with them the idea of time. The 
present infinitive conveys the idea of indefinite action; as, I wanted 
to speak* The perfect infinitive conveys the idea of completed 
action ; as, He is said to have spoken. 

EXERCISES ON VERBS. 
Oral Exercises. 

/. What is a verb? (1) — Name the verbs in the ex- 
amples given in the definition. — Conjugate the verb have, 
in regular order, as far as the potential mood. — Give the 
first person singular in all the tenses of the indicative 
mood. 

II. Hozo is the subject of a verb found ? (68) — Conjugate 
the verb have, commencing at the potential mood, and con- 
tinuing to the end. — With regard to their meaning, how 
are verbs divided? (4, 15) — What is a transitive verb? 
(16) — An intransitive verb ? (17) — Conjugate the verb be 
irregular order in the potential mood ; in the subjunctive 
mood ; in the indicative mood. 

Ill Form another verb from each of the folloioing words 
by prefixing over-, re-, sur-, or un-. 

1. gain 2. write 3. charge 

work mount do 

look light cover 

What are the person and number of a verb ? (44, 45) — 
What is voice ? (20) — How many voices are there ? — Name 
them. (21) — What is the active voice? (22) — Conjugate 
the verb love, active voice, in regular order, in the poten- 
tial mood ; in the subjunctive mood. 

Conjugate the verb call, active voice, in the indicative 
S)d; in the potoitial mood. — What is a regular verb? 



VERBS. 101 

(2) — What is the passive voice? (23) — What are iveak 
verbs ? — What are strong verbs ? (14) 

For what is the present tense used? (37) — The imper- 
fect? (38) — The perfect? (39) — Give the principal parts, 
the infinitive, the imperative, and the participles of love. 

When is the pluperfect tense used? (40) — The future? 
(41)— The future perfect? (42) 

IV. When is the potential mood used? (29) — Conjugate 
the verb love in the passive voice. — When is the subjunctive 
mood used ? (30) — When is the infinitive mood used ? (27) 
— When is the imperative mood used? (31)— What are the 
principal parts of a verb? (51) — What is the conjugation 
of a verb ? (54) 

WRITTEN EXERCISES. 

/. Underline the verbs in the folloiving stanzas : 

Heaven is not gained by a single bound, 
But we build the ladder by which we rise 
From the lowly earth to the vaulted skies, 
And we mount to its summit round by round. 

I count this thing to be grandly true : 

That a noble deed is a step toward God, — 

Lifting the soul from the common sod 

To a purer air and a broader view. — J. G. Holland. 

II. Insert a suitable verb in the folloiving sentences : 

1. A good Christian knows how to be patient in trials. — 2. It 

not enough to commence well, we should also well. — 3. God 

commands us to and our parents. — 4. We should com- 
passion on the poor who our assistance. — 5. Constant labor 

the road to success. — 6. Time so precious, we must never it. 

7. The law of God us to covet our neighbor's goods. — 8. Speech 

silver ; but silence gold. 



102 ETYMOLOGY. 

III. Where the dash occurs, insert a suitable verb : 

1. His wisdom him bitter experience. — The rivulet with 

a noiseless current. — A man , but a nation . 

2. All that lives must . The wind furiously and shook 

the house. — Evil communications good manners. 

IV. Indicate orally, or by means of the letter t or i, 
whether the verb is transitive or intransitive : 

1. Perseverance overcomes all obstacles. — Francis broke the bottle. 
— The lightning shot forth from the clouds and struck the oak. — Vic- 
toria is queen of England. 

2. Eight hundred years have passed since the dedication of West- 
minster Abbey. — A thoughtless person is one who does not reflect upon 
the consequences of what he does. — "In another moment down went 
Alice after it, never once considering how in the world she was to get 
out again." — Alice in Wonderland. 

V. Conjugate in the indicative present, imperfect, and 
future ; potential present and imperfect ; subjunctive 
present : 

Yield, convict, procure, possess, attend, control. 

VI. Coiijugate in the indicative peifect, pluperfect, 
future perfect ; potential perfect, pluperfect ; subjunctive 
imperfect : 

Perish, cry, mention, discover. 

VII. Conjugate in the principal parts, infinitive mood, 
imperative mood, and give participles : 



recite 


arrest 


perish 


publish 


succeed 


heat 


bless 


bewail 


boast 


jump 


took 


turn 



VERBS. 103 

VIII. Conjugate in the potential and the subjunctive, 
active voice : 

Unfurl, owe, prepare, answer, exhaust, suffer. 

IX. Conjugate the verbs finish, reflect, accept, in 
the first three tenses of the indicative mood, active voice ; 
and serve, watch, satisfy in the first three tenses of the 
potential mood, passive voice. 

X. Conjugate in the infinitive, imperative, indicative 
future and future perfect, and present and imperfect : 

Pardon, instruct, dream, describe, represent, persuade. 

XL Conjugate wish, provide, adore in the first person 
plural, active voice, through all the tenses of the indicative 
mood. 

XII. Change the verbs in the following passage into the 
indicative present : 

His death was a shock to the literary world, and a deep affliction to 
a wide circle of intimates and friends ; for, with all his foibles and pe- 
culiarities, he was fully as much beloved as he was admired. Burke, 
on hearing the news, burst into tears. Sir Joshua Reynolds threw by 
his pencil for the day, and grieved more than he had done in times of 
great family distress. — W. Irving, — Life of Goldsmith. 

XIII. Change the verbs in the following sentences to the 
form of the future tense : 

You love your brother. — You never annoy your neighbor. — You 
speak the truth. — You avoid evil companions. — You pay attention to 
your teacher. — You always employ your time well. — You render to 
every man his due. — You love and venerate your parents. 

Which expressions in the future form express futurity, 
and ivhich commakd? (76) 



104 ETYMOLOGY. 

XIV. Change the verbs to the passive voice: 

Robinson Crusoe brought his man Friday with him. — Whom did 
the Queen of France visit ? — Mary's mother loves her. — George recited 
the lesson. — The tailor has made the coat. 

XV. Where the dash occurs, insert a suitable auxiliary 
of the potential mood : 

He be here this evening. ■ you go with him ? I go 

also? — You do as you are told. — He have had the position. 

you assist this poor man ? — I have spoken sooner. 

Draw one line under the subject and two lines under the 
predicate : 

The time when we first begin really to know anything about Britain 
is between fifty and sixty years before the birth of our Lord Jesus 
Christ, you know. I suppose this is the way Christian nations reckon 
time ; such a thing happened so many years before, or so many years 
after the birth of Christ. At that time the greatest people in the 
world were the Romans. — Freeman. 

XVI. Supply the predicate : 

1. Life is what we make it. — The sun and moon light. — The 

boys playing. — It he. — His remark inappropriate. — The 

sheep wool. — This lace in France. — He all the way. — 

The city this year.— He yesterday.— They their parents. 

2. She last Tuesday. — The man miserably.— Cowards 

many times before their deaths. — It wise to be humble. — 

Newton very modest. — The Emperor Augustus a patron of 

the fine arts. — The labors of Alexander Hamilton as a statesman 

invaluable. 

XVII Where the dash occurs, insert one or other of the 
following verbs in the indicative present : 



VEKBS. 105 

To like, to be, to visit, to enjoy, to will. 

The air mild this morning, the birds sing as in spring, and 

some sunshine my little room. — I it thus, and myself as 

much in it as in the most beautiful place in the world, all solitary 
though it . This is because I make of it just what I , a draw- 
ing-room, a church, an academy. — Eugenie de Gtuerin, — Journal. 

XVIII. Where the dash occurs, insert one or other of 
the following verbs of the imperfect tense of the indica- 
tive : 

To glory, to brook, to owe, to presume, to hesitate, to thwart, to 
obey, to spot, to pour, to seem, to employ, to pursue, to inflict. 

He was careful that his favorites should everything to himself, 

and in the parade of their power and opulence, because they were 

of his own creation. But if he was a bountiful master, he was a most 
vindictive enemy. His temper could not contradiction. Who- 
ever to his will, or to his desires, was out 

for his victim, and was with the most unrelenting vengeance. 

We are told that in his paroxysms his eyes were with blood, his 

countenance of flame, his tongue a torrent of abuse and im- 
precation, and his hands were to vengeance on whatever came 

within his reach. — Lingard, — On Henry II. 

XIX. Where the clash occurs, insert a verb of the indic- 
ative imperfect or perfect, as the sense may require : 

1. The heat was intense. — The officers chosen.— Mary to 

secure the approbation of her teacher. — The charms of summer . 

He me a pencil. — The multitude divided. — The President 

and Vice-President there. 

2. Pompey a Roman general. — Jane yesterday. — Peter 

after the cow. — New York nearly two million inhabitants. — 

The sun slowly. — The boys to their father. — The pupils 

their lessons well.— Charles on the farm. 

3. Mary lessons in vocal music. — Margaret to mass this 

morning early. — Alice a beautiful letter, 



106 ETYMOLOGY. 

XX. Where the dash occurs in the first paragraph, in- 
sert a suitable verb of the indicative pluperfect ; and in the 
second, a verb of the future or future perfect : 

1. Thomas had reached Albany before Agnes started. — John 

his letter when you came to see him. — Rose her brother before we 

reached home. — You there before we arrived.— George when 

James met his father. 

2. They the vessel by to-morrow noon. — I there before you 

get home. — You your lessons before I have my exercise written. — 

George his clothes before evening. 

XXL Where the dash occurs, insert a suitable verb of 
the infinitive or imperative mood, as the sense may require: 

1. Be industrious if you would succeed in life. — The lady has started 
to Washington. in immediately out of the storm. 

2. thy neighbor as thyself. — Those who serve God faithfully, 

deserve to by him. 

XXII. Change the object in each sentence to the plural, 
and make the other necessary changes to complete the sense: 

Persuade the boy to tell the truth. — He forgave the man that was 
guilty. — Bring the flower that was plucked last evening. — We admire 
an object that is beautiful. — The officer rewarded the man who was 
faithful to his duty. — Forgive the enemy who asks your pardon. 

XXIII Insert the following ivords as the object of the 
verb in the sentences here given : 

1. Thirst, water, trash, peace, purse, truth, soul. — 2. Shot, secret, 
scene, strength, penny, hero, voice. 

1. Who steals my , steals trash. — He satisfied his . Sim- 
plicity of life produces of mind. — He found in it. — Always 

speak the . Truth enlightens the . 2. The winds and the 

waves obey their Creator's . "Not a soldier discharged his 

farewell , O'er the grave where our we buried. " — We can 



VERBS. 107 

never find out the of life. — A rude wooden cross marks the 

of the battle. — Shall we gain by irresolution and inaction? — I will 

give you a to row us over the ferry. 

XXIV. Where the dash occurs in the following passage, 
insert suitable verbs in the passive voice from the list 
furnished: 

Dissolve, excite, make, form, compose. 

That the diamond of the same material as coal ; that 

water chiefly of an inflammable substance ; that acids 

almost all of different kinds of air ; and that one of 

those acids, by whose strength almost any of the metals , 

of the self -same ingredients with the common air we 

breathe : these surely are things by which the wonder of any reflecting 
mind . 

X.— IRREGULAR VERBS. 

78. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form its 
imperfect tense and perfect participle by assuming -d or 
-ed ; as, see, saw, seeing, seen. 

79. Several of the irregular verbs form their principal 
parts by change of vowel. They are called strong 
verbs. Their perfect participle originally ended in -n 
or -en. 

80. Several verbs are only apparently irregular. Such 
are those whose imperfect tense is formed by -d or -t, 
without a change of vowel. They are ranked among the 
weak verbs, as are all regular verbs. 

81. Derivatives and compounds generally follow the 
form of the simple verb ; as, foresee, foresaw, foreseeing, 
foreseen ; oversee, oversaw, overseeing, overseen. The ex- 
ceptions are behave and welcome, which are regular. 



108 




ETYMOLOGY. 




1. 


Verbs 


that Vary in all 


Three Parts. 1 


Present. 




Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle. 


am or be 




was 


been 


arise 




arose 


arisen 


bear {to bring forth) 


bore, bare 


born 


bear {to uphold) 


bore, bare 


borne 


beat 




beat, bet 


beaten, or beat 


begin 




began 


begnn 


bid 




bid, bade 


bidden, bid 


bite 




bit 


bitten, bit 


blow 2 




blew 


blown 


break 




broke, brake 


broken 


chide 




chid 


chidden, chid 


choose 




chose 


chosen 


cleave to {split) 


clove, cleft 


cloven, cleft 


come 




came 


come 


do 




did 


done 


draw 




drew 


drawn 


drink 




drank 


drank, drunk 


drive 




drove 


driven 


eat 




ate, eat 3 


eaten, or eat 


fall 




fell 


fallen 


fly 




flew 


flown 


forbear 




forbore 


forborne 


forget 




forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


forsake 




forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 




froze 


frozen 


get 




got 


gotten, got 


give 




gave 


given 



1 Where there are two forms for the same part, the older form is printed in bold 
type. As the imperfect participle has no variation, and is always formed by 
adding ing to the present, it is omitted from the list here given. 

2 Slow, to bloom, and blow, the word used when speaking of the wind, have both 
the same parts. 

3 Scott uses eat for ate, in Waverley, ch. xi.— Shakespeare has eat for eaten, in King 
John, I. i. 



VERBS. 



109 



Present 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle. 


go 


went 1 


gone 


grow 


grew 


grown 


hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


hold 


held 


held, holden 


know 


knew 


known 


lade (to load) 2 


laded 


laden 


lie (to recline) 


lay 


lain, lien 3 


ride 


rode 


ridden 


ring 


rang, rung 


rung 


rise 


rose 


risen 


run 


ran, run 


run 


see 


saw 


seen 


shake 


shook 


shaken 4 


shrink 


shrank 


shrunk 


sing 


sang, sung 


sung 


sink 


sank, sunk 


sunk 


slay- 


slew 


slain 


smite 


smote 


smitten, smit 5 


speak 


spoke, spake 


spoken 


spit 


spit, spat 


spit, spitten, spitted 


spring 


sprang, sprung 


sprung 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


stride 


strode 


stridden 


strive 


strove 


striven 


swear 


swore 


sworn 


swim 


swam, swum 


swum 



1 The imperfect went comes from the present of another verb, wend, which also 
meant to go, but which is now used in a different sense and is conjugated regularly. 

2 Lade, to dip, is regular. 

3 Lien is now archaic, but it was used by Shakespeare and in the King James ver- 
sion of the Bible. 

4 Milton uses shook for shaken : 

—all earth 

Had to her centre shook.— Paradise Lost, vi., 219. 
s Shakespeare uses smote for smitten {Coriolanus III., i.), wrote for written (Cym- 
belincIH.,y.), arose for arisen (Comedy of Errors V., i.), rode for ridden (Henry 
IV., v. iii.). 



110 



Present. 
take 
tear 
throw 
tread 
wear 
write 
weave 



ETYMOLOGY. 




Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle. 


took 


taken 


tore 


torn 


threw 


thrown 


trod 


trodden, trod 


wore, ware 


worn 


wrote 


written, writ 


wove 


woven, wove 



2. Verbs whose Imperfect Tense and Perfect Participle are 

Alike. 



Present, 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle. 


abide 


abode 


abode 


bend 


bent 


bent 


beseech 


besought 


besought 


bet 


bet 


bet 


bind 


bound 


bound 


bleed 


bled 


bled 


breed 


bred 


bred 


bring 


brought 


brought 


burst 


burst 


burst 


buy 


bought 


bought 


cast 


cast 


cast 


catch 


caught 


caught 


cling 


clung 


clung 


cost 


cost 


cost 


creep 


crept 


crept 


cut 


cut 


cut 


dig 


dug 


dug 


feed 


fed 


fed 


feel 


felt 


felt 


fight 


fought 


fought 


find 


found 


found 


flee 


fled 


fled 


fling 


flung 


flung 



VERBS. 



Ill 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle. 


grind 


ground 


ground 


have 


had 


had 


hear 


heard 


heard 


hit 


hit 


hit- 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


keep 


kept 


kept 


lay 


laid 


laid 


lead 


led 


led 


leave 


left 


left 


lend 


lent 


lent 


let 


let 


let 


lose 


lost 


lost 1 


make 


made 


made 


mean 


meant 


meant 


meet 


met 


met 


pay 


paid 


paid 


put 


put 


put 


read 


read 2 


read 2 


rend 


rent 


rent 


rid 


rid 


rid 


say 


said 


said 


seek 


sought 


sought 


sell 


sold 


sold 


send 


sent 


sent 


set 


set 


set 


shed 


shed 


shed 


shine 


shone 


shone 


shoe 


shod 


shod 


shoot 


shot 


shot 



1 In older forms of English speech the perfect participle was losen, in which, ac- 
cording to the law governing the interchange of letters (Orthography, ch. i., 22), 
* was changed to r, and losen became loren, which, according to another law (Ibid. 
15), became lorn. Spenser uses lorn for lost: " After he had fair Una lorn."— Faerie 
Queen, i., 42.— A remnant of this older form is still retained in the word forlorn. 

2 Pronounced red. 



112 



Present, 
shut 
sit 
sleep 
slide 
sling 
slink 
slit 
speed 
spend 
spin 
split 
spread 
stand 
stick 
sting 
strike 
string 
sweep 
swing 
teach 
tell 
think 
thrust 
weep 
win 
wind 
wring 



ETYMOLOGY. 




Imperfect 


Perfect Participle, 


shut 


shut 


sat 


sat 


slept 


slept 


slid 


slid 


slung 


slung 


slunk 


slunk 


slit 


slit, slitted 


sped 


sped 


spent 


spent 


spun 


spun 


split 


split 


spread 


spread 


stood 


stood 


stuck 


stuck 


stung 


stung 


struck 


struck 


strung 


strung 


swept 


swept 


swung 


swung 


taught 


taught 


told 


told 


thought 


thought 


thrust 


thrust 


wept 


wept 


won 


won 


wound 


wound 


wrung 


wrung 



3. Verbs both Regular and Irregular in their Principal 

Parts. 



Present, 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle. 


awake 


awoke, awaked 


awaked 


bereave 


bereft, bereaved 


bereft, bereaved 


blend 


blended 


blended, blent 





VERBS. 


113 


Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle. 


build 


built, builded x 


built, builded 


burn 


burned, burnt 


burned, burnt 


cleave (to cling to) 


cleaved, clave 


cleaved 


climb 


climbed, clomb 2 


climbed 


clothe 


clothed, clad 


clothed, clad 


crow 


crowed, crew 


crowed 


dare (to venture) 


dared, durst - 


dared 


deal 


dealt, dealed 


dealt, dealed 


dream 


dreamed, dreamt 


dreamed, dreamt 


dwell 


dwelt, dwelled 


dwelt, dwelled 


gild 


gilded, gilt 


gilded, gilt 


gird 


girded, girt 


girded, girt 


grave 


graved 


graven, graved 


hang 


hung, hanged 3 


hung, 4 hanged 


hew 


hewed 


hewn, hewed 


kneel 


knelt, kneeled 


knelt, kneeled 


knit 


knit, knitted 


knit, knitted 


light 


lighted, lit 


lighted, lit 


mow 


mowed 


mown, mowed 


pen (to inclose) 


pent, penned 


pent, penned 


quit 


quit, quitted 


quit, quitted 


rive 


rived 


riven, rived 


rot 


rotted 


rotten, rotted 


saw 


sawed 


sawn, sawed 


shape 


shaped 5 


shapen, shaped 


shave 


shaved 


shaven, shaved 



1 The -* in built stands for the original letters -d + -de which became -de, 
then -te, and finally -t. This last change took place in the fourteenth century, 
The form builded is still sometimes used. Thus Emerson says : " They builded 
better than they knew. 1 ' 

2 Milton uses clomb: " So clomb this first grand thief into God's fold."— Para- 
dise Lost, iv., 192. Byron also : " We forded the river and clomb the high hills." 
—Siege of Corinth. 

3 Regular when it denotes the taking of life. 

* Rung is a contraction of the oJd English form hongen. 

6 The old imperfect shope was in use in the sixteenth century, 



114 





ETYMOLOGY. 




Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle. 


shear 


sheared 


shorn, sheared 


show 


showed 


shown, showed 


sow 


sowed 


sown, sowed 


spell 


spelt, spelled 


spelt, spelled 


spill 


spilt, spilled 


spilt, spilled 


strew 


strewed 


strewn, strewed 


strow 


strowed 


strown, strowed 


swell 


swelled 


swollen, swelled 


thrive 


thrived, throve 


thriven, thrived 


wax 


waxed 


waxen, waxed 


whet 


whet, whetted 


whet, whetted 


work 


wrought, worked 


wrought, worked 



XL— DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

82. A defective verb is a verb that, in its present state, 
forms no participles, and is not used in all the moods and 
tenses. The following are defective verbs : 

83. Worth = be.— "Wo worth the day!" — Ezech. 
xxx. 2. 

This phrase means "Woe be to the day!" It is the only phrase in 
which worth in this sense is met with in modern English. 
Worth is from the old English weorthan=to become. 

84. Beware is used only in those tenses in which the 
form be is retained in the conjugation of the verb be ; 
namely : 

(1) The infinitive present; as, Strive to beware. 

(2) The indicative future ; as, He will beware. 

(3) The potential present ; as, You must beware. 

(4) The potential past ; as You should beware. 

(5) The subjunctive present ; as, If you beware. 

(6) The imperative ; as, Beware of bad company. 



VEEBS. 115 

In the indicative present of the verb be, we meet the forms I am, he 
is. Now, we cannot say / beware, he bewares. 

85. Ought {should) is derived from owe, of which it is 
the imperfect tense. 

Shakespeare uses ought in this sense : 

" You ought him a thousand pounds; " 
that is, " You owed him." 

Ought is now used in the present and the imperfect tense to express 
moral obligation. It is invariable except in the second person singular. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Ought, 1. Ought, 

2. Ought-est, 2. Ought, 

3. Ought; 3. Ought. 

86. Would (meaning earnest desire) is rarely used 
except in the expressions would God, would Heaven ; 
would to God, tvould to Heaven ; I tvould that, ivould that 
I could, and the like. Would is originally the imperfect 
tense of will, but, like ought, expresses present time in the 
examples here given. 

The colloquial expression won't comes from wol-not, according to 
laws already laid down (Orth. ch. i. 15, 20). 

Wol is another form for will, and was in use up to the thirteenth 
century. 

Nill is a contracted form of ne-will, not-will, according to the same 
laws {Ibid.). 

Willy m\\y —will-he, nill-he, or will-ye, nill-ye. {Taming of the 
Shrew, II. i.) Cromwell writes: "They, will they, nill they, shall 
fulfil the good pleasure of God." — Carlyle, — CromwelVs Letters and 
Speeches, Letter 67. 

87. Quoth {say, said) is used only in the first and the 
third person singular of the indicative present and past. 



116 ETYMOLOGY. 

It is invariable, and is always placed before its subject ; as, 
" Quoth I.—" Quoth he."— 

"Quoth the Raven, nevermore." — Edgar Allan Poe. 

Quoth was originally the form of the imperfect tense. We have 
a remnant of the present tense in the syllable queath of the word 
bequeath. 

88. Wit is now used only in the infinitive present, when 
it is taken adverbially, and means namely. 

To wit originally meant to know. Its present tense is 
wot ; it is the same through all the persons. 

The word wot is of frequent occurrence in Shakespeare. The 
imperfect tense is wist; this is also the same through all the persons. 
To illustrate its use : the Rheims-Douay version of the Bible reads : 
4 'For he knew not what he said." The King James version reads: 
4 'For he wist not what to say." (Mark ix. 6.) An English proverb 
reads: " Beware of had I ivist ; " that is, "Beware of having to say 
afterwards with regret, had I known ." The imperfect participle of 
wit is retained in the words unwitting, unwittingly, still in use. 

89. Must was originally itself an imperfect tense. It is 
now used in all persons and in past and present tenses to 
denote necessity and obligation. 

The present tense of must was mot. Spenser used the old verb 

form : 

Fraelissa was as fair, as fair mote he.— Faerie Queen. 

90. Durst is the imperfect tense of dare. Like must, 
it is used both in the present and past tenses. So, also, 
the form dare is correctly used in the third person 
singular; as, 

"A bard to sing of deeds he dare not imitate. "—Scott,— Waverley. 

When dare signifies to challenge, it becomes a regular verb. 



VERBS. 117 

91. Need, as a verb, used negatively, loses its ending s 
in the third person singular ; as, It need not be ; he need 
not come. 

92. When the infinitive following has the particle to 
omitted, need is also used without the s in the third 
person singular ; as, It need scarcely be said ; all thai 
need be said. — Newmak. 

93. But when the particle to is expressed, the s is 
added ; as, It needs to be said. 

The same rule holds good for the verb dare. The phrase must 
needs is an emphatic form of necessity ; as, He must needs go to 
Borne. The word needs is an adverb in this instance. 

EXERCISES. 

7. Conjugate in the second and third persons singular, 
indicative mood : 

Deal, buy, dig, catch, come, bring, cut, do, clothe. 

II. Conjugate in the first person, singular and plural, 
indicative and potential moods : 

Feel, eat, find, drink, dwell, drive, fling, fall, fly, forgive. 

III. Conjugate in the infinitive, subjunctive, imperative 
moods, and give the participles : 

Freeze, get, give, keep, hold. 

IV. Conjugate in the indicative and potential, second 
person singular and plural, passive voice : 

Lend, lead, meet, pay, make, let, lose, make, read. 

V. Change to the plural the toords in italics : 

He rows the boat. — Thou walkest too fast. — /went to the library. 
— He spoke of his fine horses. — My book was found. — The base ball 



118 ETYMOLOGY. 

team is here. It is new and large. — Thou art the man. — I know him 
to be honest. 

VI. Change to the singular for ?n : 

The birds were on the trees. — The boats contain the boys.— You rest 
when you should labor. — The pupils received their rewards. — The books 
were given to the girls. — We visited the gardens last week. 

VII. Change to the plural form the ivords in italics : 

Remember, boy, when thou makest a mistake thou canst correct it, 
if thou takest the means that are pointed out to thee. — Guide thyself by 
the rules of justice. — They gave thee the book that thou didst lend 
some time since to thy friend. — The crucifix is beautifully carved. — 
The carpet ivas greatly admired. 

VIII. Supply a?i irregular verb in the following sen- 
tences : 

1. I awoke this morning at two o'clock. — I the Lord with all 

my heart. — He a new carriage. — Oliver the trumpet. — Alex- 
ander a large trout. — Anna when I arrived. — James me 

tell you that he to see you. 

2. The ship in England. — He is to fulfil the contract. — 

Isaac his pains patiently. — Thomas me the Bible. — Do as 

your father you. — The dam . The table is . 

IX. Give the folio-wing verbs such inflections as they 
take : 

Beware, ought, quoth, wot, dare. 

X. Beplace the emphatic form of the verb by the simple 
form in the following sentences : 

They do love to work. — I know that he did intend to go. — They did 
expect to be there. — We did propose the meeting. — Henry did sell the 
house. — He did make a great mistake in acting unkindly. — You did 
wrong your friend when you did speak ill of him. 



VERBS. 119 

XL Change the verbs in the following sentences into the 
progressive form and state the change of meaning brought 
about by the change of form: 

Example* — Simple form: John writes = Progressive form: JoJm 
is writing. 

1. William studied his lessons. — 2. Henry will go to the dock. — 3. 
Eliza may write to her aunt. — 4. Ida proposed to stay with her sister. 
— 5. " The saint, the father, and the husband prays." — Burns. 

XII. Change the verbs in the following sentences into the 
intentional form : 

Example* — Simple form : John had written. Intentional form : 
John had been going to write. 

1. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. — 2. Adversity was a 
good school.— -3. Carlyle wrote The French Revolution. — 4. The war 
occurred. — 5. The book was printed. — 6. Napoleon betrayed the Pope. 

XII.— INFINITIVES. 

1. The verb has two forms in the infinitive mood : the 
present and the perfect. 

2. The present infinitive is the verb in its simplest form 
with the preposition to prefixed ; as, to ride, to be deceived. 

3. The perfect infinitive is the perfect participle of the 
verb, preceded by the infinitive to have; as, to have 
ridden, to have been deceived. 

4. The infinitive forms are chiefly used as verbal nouns. 
As such they enter largely into the construction of infini- 
tive phrases. 

5. Infinitive phrases may be : 

(1) The subject of a verb ; as, To read good books is useful. 

(2) The object of a transitive verb ; as, James loves to read 
good books. 



120 ETYMOLOGY. 

(3) An attribute ; as, To work is to pray 

(4) In apposition with a noun ; as, It is a noble task to train 
the tender soul. 

(5) An adjective ; as, There is a time to laugh and a time to be 
serious. 

(6) An adverb ; as, He is always ready to find fault. 

(7) Independent ; as, To make a long story short, they escaped 
all perils. 

6. The present infinitive is vised when the verb in the 
sentence expresses an act or state of being before or at 
the time of the act expressed by the infinitive : 

(1) Before the act; as, I meant to ivrite to you before 
to-day. 

(2) At the time of the act ; as, He seemed to enjoy the play 
last night. 

7. The perfect infinitive is used when the verb expresses 
an act or state of being following the act expressed by the 
infinitive ; as, He appeared to have seen better days. 

EXERCISES. 

I. Where the dash occurs insert the present infinitive : 

He was expected present. — Henry and John are to- 
morrow. — They started for the train. — I intended for 

Europe. — They are in the hotel. is all he asks.— You 

need not . 

II. Where the dash occurs insert the perfect infini- 
tive : 

You ought with your father. so many friends, was a 

sufficient proof of the esteem in which he was held.— She was thought 

the letter.— Thomas will be known the essay.— He was said 

over the country. 



VERBS. 121 

III. Write out the verbs in the infinitive mood, present 
and perfect tenses, and state the reasons why they are in 
those respective tenses : 

They were said to have been sick. — I intend to write.— Ralph had 
neglected to read the editorial. — We have forgotten how to spell. — To 
be believed always comes from speaking the truth. — He believed his 
friend to have been wrong. 

We have hearts to feel and hands to do, 
And eyes to pierce the darkness through. 

He that lacks time to mourn, lacks time to mend. 
Eternity mourns that.— Henky Taylor. 

XIII.— PARTICIPLES. 

1. A participle is a form of the verb expressing action 
or state of being without the limitations of number and 
person. 

2. The participle admits of three forms : the imperfect, 
the perfect, and the preperfect. 

3. The imperfect participle expresses action or state 
of being as continuing and unfinished ; as, reaping. 

The imperfect participle is also called the present participle, and 
the participial-infinitive. 

4. The imperfect participle is formed by adding -ing to 
the root-word of the verb ; as, speak-ing. 

5. The perfect participle expresses action or state of 
being as past ; as, spolcen. 

The perfect participle is also called the past participle. 

6. The perfect participle is formed by adding -d or -ed 
to the root of regular, or weak verbs, and -n or -en to the 
root of irregular, or strong verbs. 



122 ETYMOLOGY. 

Sometimes, among the irregular or strong verbs, no change occurs 
in the formation of the perfect participle. Several such are to be 
found in the list of our irregular or strong verbs. 

7. The preperfect participle expresses action or state 
of being as having been completed ; as, having spoken. 

The preperfect participle is also called the perfect participle. 

8. The preperfect participle is formed by prefixing the 
word having to the perfect participle. 

9. The participial infinitive assumes the functions of a 
noun, an adjective, an adverb, and a preposition. 

(1) A noun ; as, The reading of good books is beneficial. » 

(2) An adjective ; as, They fired & parting shot. 

(3) An adverb ; as, The water was scalding hot. 

(4) A preposition ; as, He was informed regarding the whole 
proceeding. 

10. The following participles are frequently used as prepo- 
sitions : 

barring notwithstanding saving 

bating pending touching 

concerning regarding 

excepting respecting 

EXERCISES. 

7. Copy the folloiving passage, underlining the parti- 
ciples, and naming the kind of participle each is. 

Perfection. 
A friend called on Michael Angelo, who was finishing a statue ; 
some time afterwards he called again ; the sculptor was still at work ; 
his friend, looking at the figure, exclaimed, " You have been idle since 
1 saw you last! " "By no means," replied the sculptor, " I have re- 
touched this part, and polished that ; I have softened this feature, and 



ADVERBS. 123 

brought out this muscle. I have given more expression to this lip, and 
more energy to this limb." "Well, well," said his friend, "but all 
these are trifles." "It may be so," replied Michael Angelo, " but rec- 
ollect that trifles make perfection, and that perfection is no trifle." 

27. Where the dash occurs insert a suitable participle : 

1. The workman, spent with fatigue, fell into a deep sleep. — The art 

of well and fluently is important. — Henry, on the pavement, 

broke his leg. — The retiring president, the meeting, withdrew 

from the platform. 

2. Margaret has a for. good books. by the gale, the 

vessel was dashed against the rocky shore. his soldiers over the 

Alps, Hannibal entered Italy. 

3. with difficulties and disappointments, La Salle never lost 

courage. — I have not here to-day. — The tyrant Nero, many 

cruel acts, died a miserable death. — Columbus was about to 

Spain. — St. Paul the Apostle, in the reign of Nero, was witness 

of his cruelties. 



CHAPTER X. 

ADVERBS. 



1. An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an ad- 
jective, or another adverb ; as, When you speak, speak 
slowly, distinctly, and correctly. 

2. Adverbs are derived from adjectives and participles 

by the addition of -ly ; as, from the adjective sloio, comes 
the adverb slowly; and from the participle knoiving 
comes the adverb knowingly. 

The suffix -ly is from the Old English lie or lich— like. 

3. Some adverbs and adverbial phrases are formed by 
combining a preposition with a noun or an adjective : 



124 ETYMOLOGY. 

(i) Of, replacing the old possessive case; as, Of -course, of -force, 

of-truth, of-old, of-late, of-a-day, of-a-truth. 
(2) Of, with the old possessive form ; as, of-Sundays, of-morn- 



(3) A, standing for the old English an, on, in; as, a-year, 
a-day,=jear\y, daily; a-bed, a- foot, a-loft. 

(4) An, on, o, standing for an or on, and meaning of; as, man- 
a-war, two-o-clock, Jack-an-apes. 

(5) A, with old possessive forms; as, a-nights, now-a-days= old 
English now-on-day s. 

(6) Be ; as, be-times, beside. 

(7) To ; as, to-day, to-night, to-morrow. 

Some adverbs have changed from the old objective to the old pos- 
sessive form ; thus, 

Sometime has become sometimes. 
Alway " " always. 

Sideway " " sideways. 

4. Adverbs of direction are formed from other adverbs 
or from nouns by the addition of the suffix -ward or 
wards ; as, upward or upwards, backivard, aftenvard, 
downivard ; homeward, leeward, shoreward. 

The suffix -ward, in old English weard, is allied to weorthan, to 
be or to become, and hence implies turning or leading to. 

5. Some adverbial phrases are formed by prepositions 
with the comparative and superlative of adjectives : 

(1) Comparative ; as, for better, for the worse. 

(2) Superlative ; as, at last, at most, at best, at least. 

I.— CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 

6. Adverbs are divided into four principal classes ; 
namely, adverbs of time, adverbs of place, adverbs of de- 
gree, and adverbs of manner. 



ADVERBS. 125 

7. Adverbs of time answer the questions When ? How 
long? They may express : 

(1) Time absolute : Ever, never, always, eternally, perpetually, 
continually, constantly, endlessly, forever, incessantly, ever- 
lastingly, evermore, nevermore, aye. 

(2) Time relative : i. e., reckoned with, to, or from some other 
time : When, whenever, then, meanwhile, meantime, as, 
while, whilst, till, until, otherwhile, after, afterwards, 
subsequently, before, late, early, betimes, seasonably. 

(3) Time repeated : Again, often, oft, oftentimes, sometimes, 
occasionally, seldom, rarely, frequently, now and then, ever 
and anon, daily, weekly, hourly, monthly, yearly, annually, 
anew, once, twice, thrice, four times, and so on. 

(4) Time present : Now, to-day, nowadays, at present, yet (= 
heretofore and now), as yet. 

(5) Time past : Yesterday, heretofore, recently, lately, of late, 
already, formerly, just now, just, anciently, since, hitherto, 
long since, long ago, erewhile, till now. 

(6) Time future : Hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, soon, 
to-morrow, shortly, erelong, by and by, presently, instantly, 
immediately, straightway, straight ways, directly, forthwith, 
not yet, anou. 

8. Adverbs of place answer the questions Where? 
Whither ? Whence ? They may express : 

(1) Place absolute : Here, there, yonder, where, everywhere, 
somewhere, universally, nowhere, wherever, wheresoever, 
anywhere, herein, therein, wherein, hereabouts, thereabouts, 
whereabouts, hereabout, thereabout, aground, on high, all 
over, here and there. 

(2) Place reckoned from some point : Whence, hence, thence, 
elsewhere, otherwhere, away, far, afar, far off, out, remotely, 
abroad, above, forth, below, ahead, aloof, outwards, about, 
around, beneath, before, behind, over, under, within, without, 
from within, from without. 



126 ETYMOLOGY. 

(3) Place reckoned to some point : Whither, thither, hither, 
in, up, down, upwards, downwards, inwards, backwards, 
forwards, hitherward, thitherward, homeward, aside, ashore, 
afield, aloft, aboard, aground, nigh. 

The forms upward, downward, backward, and similar words, are 
also used as adjectives. 

(4) Place numerical: First, secondly, thirdly, next, lastly, 
finally, at last, in fine. First means in the first place ; 
secondly means in the second place, and so on. 

9. Adverbs of degree answer the questions How much ? 
How little ? They may express : 

(1) Extent or degree : Much, more, most, greatly, far, further, 
very, too, little, less, least, extra, mostly, entirely, chiefly, 
principally, mainly, generally, commonly, usually, in gen- 
eral, fully, full, completely, totally, wholly, perfectly, all, 
together, quite, exceedingly, extravagantly, immeasurably, 
immensely, excessively, boundlessly, infinitely, inconceiv- 
ably, clear, stark, nearly, well-nigh, partly, partially, in- 
tensely, scarcely, scantily, precisely, enough, exactly, even, 
everso, just, equally, sufficiently, adequately, proportion- 
ately, competently, as, so, however, howsoever, somewhat, 
at all. 

(2) Exclusion or emphasis : Merely, only, but, alone, simply, 
barely, just, particularly, especially, in particular. 

(3) Superposition : Also, besides, else, still, yet, too, likewise, 
withal, moreover, furthermore, however, extra, eke, even, 
nevertheless, anyhow. These adverbs are used -when an 
idea is added to the idea already expressed. 

10. Adverbs of manner answer the question How? 
They are : 

So, thus, well, ill, how, wisely, foolishly, justly, slowly, some- 
how, anyhow, however, howsoever, otherwise, else, likewise, 
like, alike, as, extempore, headlong, lengthwise, crosswise, 



ADVERBS. 



127 



across, aslant, astride, astraddle, adrift, amain, afloat, apace, 
apart, asunder, amiss, anew, fast, together, separately, aloud, 
accordingly, agreeably, necessarily, helter-skelter, hurry- 
skurry, namely, suddenly, silently, feelingly, surprisingly, 
touchingly, trippingly, lovingly, hurriedly, mournfully, 
sweetly, proportionally, exactly, heavily, and many others 
ending in ily and formed from adjectives or present 
participles. 

II.— MODIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 

11. The only modification adverbs have is that of com- 
parison. 

12. A few adverbs are compared after the manner of 
adjectives; as, soon, soon-er, soon-est ; early, earli-er, 
ear li- est. 

13. The following adverbs have comparatives and super- 
latives that are usually employed as adjectives : 

Superlative. 
aftermost 
innermost 
! inmost 
nethermost 
c uttermost 
( utmost 
j uppermost 
( upmost 

After, in modern usage, is sometimes employed as an adverb and 
sometimes as an adjective. Like near, it has lost its comparative 
meaning. After is derived from the old English form af=ofov off. 

In retains its adverbial sense in the word within, which, with the 
old English, was known as inwith. 

Neath does not stand alone in modern English. It is found in 
such words as, beneath, underneath. 

These adverbs are all prepositional in origin. 



Positive. 


Comparath 


aft 


after 


in 


inner 


neath 


nether 


out 


j outer 
( utter 



r 

( ir 



up 



upper 



128 



ETYMOLOGY. 



14. Most adverbs of manner are compared by pre- 
fixing the adverbs more and most, less and least ; as, ivisely, 
more wisely, most wisely; culpably, less culpably, 
least culpably. 

15. The following adverbs are irregular in their com- 
parison : 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


well 


better 


best 


ill 


worse 


worst 


much 


more 


most 


forth 


further 


furthest 


far 


farther 


farthest 


late 


later 


latest 





rather 


rathest. 



The th in farther and farthest crept into these words by false 
analogy with further and furthest. The natural mode of comparing 
far is far, far-er, far-est. In the earlier forms of the language ferrer 
was used as the comparative. 

Rather is derived from the adjective rathe=ready. Milton, in 
Lycidas, speaks of the "rathe primrose." Here rathe means early. 

1 6. Adverbs may be modified by other adverbs; as, 
extremely well, very simply done. 

17. Adverbs may also be modified by adverbial phrases 
or adverbial clauses. 

18. The following is a partial list of the adverbial 
phrases most frequently employed in English : 

at length at times by and by in case now and then 

at last at hand by no means from above ever and anon 

at best as yet in that from below up and down 

at all by chance inasmuch as one by one in and out 

at large by far in truth in like manner here and there 

at once by turns of purpose of a truth of mornings 



ADYEEBS. 129 

III.— FUNCTIONS OF ADVERBS. 

19. In modifying other words, adverbs perform certain 
functions which it is customary for grammarians to dis- 
tinguish. The principal functions are : 

(1) Causative ; as expressed by ivhence, thence, wherefore, there- 
fore. 

(2) Conjunctive ; as expressed by when, before, besides, since, so. 

(3) Interrogative ; as expressed by why, wherefore, whence, 
how, when employed in asking questions. 

(4) Affirmative ; as expressed by yes, yea, indeed, positively, 
amen. 

(5) Negative ; as expressed by no, nay, not, nowise. 

(6) Potential ; as expressed by peradventure, perchance, perhaps, 
may-be, possibly. 

20. The adverb then is sometimes used as an adjective 
by English writers : 

"In my then circumstances. 1 '' — Thackeray, — The Paris Sketch 
Booh. 

"After the then country fashion." — Kingsley, — Westward Ho! 

21. When adverbs are used in pairs and have a mutual 
relation, they are called correlative adverbs. Among 
the correlative adverbs are : 

As-so : — As the twig is bent, so shall it grow. 

When-then : — When the heart beats no more, then the life ends. 

Where-there: — Where the carrion is, there the buzzard is to 

be found. 
Not only-but : — Oswald communicated not only a copy of his 

commission, but a part of his instructions. — Bancroft. 
Not only-but even : — Smuggling and piracy were deemed not 

only not infamous, but even honorable. 
Not merely-but also: — These are questions, not of prudence 

merely, but of morals also. 



130 ETYMOLOGY. 

EXERCISES. 

I. Mention the adverbs ending in -ly formed from the 
adjectives given : 

slow slowly liberal busy 

manful general sole 

pretty hearty whole 

gay rude feeble 

77. Write one line under the adjectives and two lines 
under the adverbs : 

Every truth of common sense can bear the test of reason. — We 
should read authors whose names are generally known and respected. — 
Study, prosecuted with enthusiasm, is all the more intense and the 
better sustained. — How can you run so rapidly ? 

III. Supply an adverb that will complete the sense : 

1. He swam almost across the river. — He mentioned that he 

had met you. — They labored faithfully . Charles was this 

morning. 

2. Joseph has been promoted. did you not go. — He spoke 

. The man was conscious the last. — Richard studies his 

lessons . They walked down the road. 

3. Louis is in time. — Be the first on whom the news is 

tried. — Be wise ; 'tis madness to defer. — Cunning and deception, 

the meteors of the earth, glittering for a time, must pass away. 

IV. In copying the following passage, indicate each ad- 
verb, its hind and its function ; also point out the verbs, 
nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adjective pronouns. 

" There is a sharp dividing line between youth and manhood. Some- 
times we cross it early, and sometimes late, but we do not know that 
we are passing from one life to another as we step across the boundary. 
The world seems to us the same for awhile as we knew it yesterday 



PREPOSITIONS. 131 

and shall know it to-morrow. Suddenly, we look back and start with 
astonishment when we see the past, which we thought so near, already 
vanishing in the distance, shapeless, confused, and estranged from our 
present selves. Then we know that we are men, and acknowledge, 
with something like a sigh, that we have put away childish things." — 
F. Marion Crawford, — Sant 'Ilario. 



CHAPTER XI. 

PREPOSITIONS. 



1. A preposition is a word used to express the relation 
between an object and a preceding name, state, or action. 

2. A preposition is generally placed before a noun or 
pronoun, which is called the object of the preposition. 

3. The relations expressed may be : 

(1) Between the object and a preceding noun or pronoun ; as, 

There is fruit in the dish ; the question passed from him to 
me. 

(2) Between the object and a verb ; as, Come to me. 

(3) Between the object and an adjective ; as, He is pleased with 
the lesson. 

4. The relations expressed by prepositions are : 

(1) Relation of time ; as, He started before sunrise. 

(2) Relation of place ; as, He went to Boston. 

(3) Relation of instrument ; as, He gained the case by the 
force of his eloquence. 

(4) Relation of quality ; as, A house of stone. 

(5) Relation of cause ; as, He works for money. 

(6) Relation of purpose ; as, He came for a book. 

5. Two prepositions are sometimes found together in the 
same sentence. Sometimes one of them may be parsed as 



132 ETYMOLOGY. 

an adverb and the other as a preposition. " He went out 
of the house." 

Here out is an adverb modifying went, and of is a preposition gov- 
erning house and showing the relation between its object and the verb 
went-out. 

Sometimes, both words should be considered prepositions ; 
as in the sentences, Tlie Franks came from beyond the 
Rhine ; Draw the bench from under the table. 

6. Many words, prepositional in their nature, such as 
after, about, up, before, beyond, beloto, are used as ad- 
verbs. As such, they have no subsequent term of relation. 

Example. — " You may go before, but John must stay behind." 
' 'The eagle flew up, then soared about, and afterwards descended." 

List of Prepositions. 

A= at, on, or in; "The world runs a wheels." — Ben Jonson. 
Aboard ; " Aboard ship, dull shocks are sometimes felt." 
About; "I must be about my Father's business." — St. Luke. — 
"Roving still about the world." — Milton. 

Above ; "I saw in the way a light from heaven above the bright- 
ness of the sun." — Acts. 

According to ; " Proceed according to law." 
Across ; " A bridge is laid across the river." — Dryden. 
After ; "Ye shall not go after other gods." — Deuteron. 
Against ; "Uplift against the sky your mighty shapes." 
Along ; "I hear the waves resounding along the shore." 
Amid, amidst; "But rather famish them amid their plenty." — 
Shakespeare.— "This work was written amidst many interruptions." 

Among, amongst ; "Blessed art thou among women."— "He was 
always foremost amongst them." 

Around ; "A lambent flame around his brows." — Dryden. 

As to ; " As to the parts of the cargo, they were already made fast." 

At ; " She is at church."—" The bell rings at noon," 



PREPOSITIONS. 133 

Athwart ; "Athwart the thickets low."— Tennyson. 

Before ; "Who shall go before them ?"— " Before Abraham was, I 
am."— St. John. 

Behind ; " What hope of answer or redress? — 

Behind the veil, behind the veil." — Tennyson. 

Below ; "One degree beloiv kings."— Addison. — "Below the moon ; 
below the knee." — Shakespeare. 

Beneath ; " Our country sinks beneath the yoke." — Shakespeare. 
"Beneath a rude and nameless stone he lies," — Pope. 

Beside ; "Beside him hung his bow." — Milton. 

Besides ; " There was a famine in the land besides the first fam- 
ine." — Gen. 

Between; New York is between Boston and Philadelphia. — "If 
things should go so between them." — Bacon. 

Betwixt ; " Betwixt two aged oaks." — Milton. 

Beyond ; " Beyond any of the great men of my country." — Sidney. 

But=except ; " Who can it be but perjured Lycon." — Dryden. 

By ; "By land, by water they renew their charge." — Pope. 

Concerning; "I have accepted thee concerning this thing." — 
Genesis xix. 

Down ; " His gory visage down the stream was sent." — " Down the 
swift Hebrus to the Lesbian shore." — Milton. 

During ; He stayed at home during the winter. 

Ere ; — " Our fruitful Nile 

Flowed ere the wonted season." — Dryden. 

Except ; " I have finished all the letters except one." — Collier. 

For ; " We take a flashing meteor for a star." 

From; " Experience from the time past to the time present." — 
Bacon. 

In ; " The golden moments in the stream of life rush past us, and we 
see nothing but sand." — George Eliot. 

Into ; Water enters into the fine vessels of plants. 

Notwithstanding ; I shall go notwithstanding the rain. 

Of; " It is the duty to communicate of those blessings we have re- 
cei ved . ' '—Franklin. 



134 ETYMOLOGY. 

Off ; The vessel was becalmed off Cuba. 

On ; " Whosoever shall fall on this stone shall be broken.'' — Matt. 
xxi. 44. 

Out of; "Keep thy heart with all diligence ; for out of it are the 
issues of life." — Prov. iv. 23. 

Over; "I will make thee ruler over many things." — Matt. 
xxx. 23. 

Past ; " The author was galled past endurance by this new stroke." 
— Macaulav. 

Round ; "A shoreless ocean tumbled round the globe." 

Save; " Of the Jews five times received I forty stripes, save one." 
—II. Cor. xi. 24. 

Since; "The Lord hath blessed thee since my coming." — Gen. 
xxx. 30. 

Till, until ; " And he said unto them, trade till I come." — Luke 
xix. 13. 

Through ; ' ' Through these hands this science has passed with 
great applause." — Sir W. Temple. 

Throughout ; There was much anxiety felt throughout the land. 

To ; " Stand dumb, and speak not to him." — Shakespeare. 

Toward, towards ; " He set his face toward the wilderness." — 
Num. xxi v. 1. 

Under ; " Bottles let down into wells under water will keep long." 
— Bacon. 

Unto ; Verily I say unto you. 

Up; "In going up a hill, the knees will be most weary." — 
Bacon. 

Upon ; " Thou shalt take of the blood. . . .upon the altar." — Exod. 
xxix. 21. 

With ; "With her they flourished, and with her they die." — Pope. 

Within ; 

" —Within himself 
The danger lies, yet lies within his power."— Milton. 

Without; "There is no living with thee nor without thee." — 
Tatler. 



PREPOSITIONS. 135 

EXERCISES. 

I Supply a suitable preposition : 

1. Come from Albany. 2. Speak facility. 

Live peace. Engrave marble. 

Act malice. He will die hunger. 

Walk on the roof. Write English. 

3. Remain home. 

Send her school. 

Raise your hearts God. 

Punish him stealing. 

77. Where the dash occurs insert a suitable preposition : 

John differs him appearance. — We sat a mossy bank, 

an aged pine, whose branches the south wind made pleasant 

music, while us, a little distance, the waters — — a tiny 

brook sang merrily as they danced swiftly the slope, be 

lost the flood the mighty river. 

III. Supply a suitable participle where the dash occurs, 
and underline the prepositions : 

1. When the sea had its fury, it became calm. — The officers 

were , and then the meeting adjourned. — The of the bell pre- 
vented our hearing the of the clock. — The boy, having been , 

was dismissed. a noise, I went to the door. 

2. He was for hearing his lesson. — They heard the girl 

. The soldiers were the city. — He was for his conduct. 

— We at the things that were to us. 

3. Then shook the hills with thunder (to rive) ! 

Then rushed the steed to battle {to drive) ! 

And louder than the bolts of heaven 

Far flashed the red artillery !— Thomas Campbell. 



136 ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER XII. 

CONJUNCTION'S. 

1. A conjunction is a word used to join sentences, or 
the elements of a sentence. 

2. The elements of a sentence which the conjunction 
may connect are : 

(i) Words ; as, Mary or her brother went to town. Here the 
conjunction or connects the words Mary and brother. 

(2) Phrases; as, " His voice was heard above the whistling of 
the wind and the roar of the billows." Here the two 
phrases " roar of the billows " and "whistling of the wind" 
are connected by the conjunction and. 

(3) Clauses ; as, He will write if you ask him. Here the con- 
junction if connects the clauses "you ask him" and 
" he will write." 

3. Conjunctions may also connect a consecutive series 
of words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. 

4. Conjunctions may be co-ordinate or subordinate. 

5. A co-ordinate conjunction is that which joins 
elements — whether words, phrases, or clauses, which are of 
the same rank, be it one of dependence or independence. 

6. The co-ordinate conjunctions may be classed as 
follows : 

(1) Copulative ; that is, words linking words, phrases, clauses, 
or sentences together. Such are the words and, also, 
further, moreover. 

(2) Adversative ; that is, words expressing opposition between 
words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. Such are the words 
but, yet, still, however, only, notwithstanding. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 137 

(3) Alternative ; that is, words denoting that the sense con- 
veyed by one out of two or more names, phrases, clauses, or 
sentences may be chosen or rejected. Such words are : or, 
noiv, else, otherwise. 

(4) Illative ; that is, words that express a consequence or infer- 
ence following from what has been said. Such words are: 
hence, thence, then; for, because, so; therefore, wherefore, 
consequently, accordingly. 

7. A subordinate conjunction is that which joins a 
dependent phrase or clause with the phrase or clause on 
which it depends. 

8. The subordinate conjunctions may be classed as 
follows : 

(1) Conjunctions of cause ; that is, words that express cause or 
contingency. Such words are: that, if; unless, except, be- 
cause, since; although, albeit, though; whereas, provided, 
inasmuch, as. 

(2) Conjunctions of time ; that is, words that express time. 
Such are : before, ere, since, after, as soon as ; while, whilst, 
when. 

(3) Conjunctions of place"; that is, words that express rest in 
or motion to or from a place. Such words are: whence, 
thence; whither, thither. 

(4) Conjunctions of comparison ; that is, words that express 
comparison. Such are: as, than. 

(5) Conjunctions of purpose ; that is, words that express an 
end, result, or purpose. Such are: lest, that, so that, in 
order that. 

(6) Conjunctions of manner ; that is, words that express man- 
ner. Such words are : as, as if, how. 

9. When co-ordinate or subordinate conjunctions are used 
in pairs and have a mutual relation they are called correl- 
ative conjunctions. Such are ; 



138 ETYMOLOGY. 

Both— and ''Power to judge both quick and dead." — Mil- 
ton. 

As — as .... As long as you please. 

So — as .... So long as you please. 

Either — or "Either he his talking,. . . or he is on a journey." 

—I. Kings xvii. 27. 

Neither — nor.... "Neither had I transgressed, nor thou with 
me." — Milton. 

If — then. ... If he confessed it, then forgive him. 

Though — yet. ... " Tfiough he slay me, yet will I trust in him." — 
Job xiii. 15. 

Nor — nor.... "I whom nor avarice nor pleasures move." — 
Walsh. 

Whether — or It matters little whether I go or stay. 

10. The correlatives as-as, so-as, such-as, are more 
adjective and adverbial than conjunctive. 

(i) As-as : " A miss is as good as a mile." Here the first as 
is an adverb, the second as is a conjunctive adverb. 

(2) So-as : "It is risky to lean on so weak a reed as he has 
proven himself." Here so is an adverb, and as is a con- 
junctive adverb. 

(3) Such-as : "Such men as these should never be intrusted with 
the work." Here such is a pronominal adjective, and as is a 
conjunctive adjective. 

In the sentence: "Give me such as are good," such is a pro- 
nominal adjective, taken as a noun and the object of 
give ; as is also a pronominal adjective and "the subject 
of are. 

Some grammarians call as in this instance a demonstrative 
pronoun. 

11. Conjunctions are not only connectives; they also 
serve to introduce a sentence ; as, If I tvere you I would 
not destroy the house. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 139 

EXERCISES. 

/. Where the dash occurs insert a suitable conjunction : 

1. Keep good boys' company, you will be one of the number. 

Roll on, thou deep dark blue ocean, roll! He is honest his 

judgment is one-sided. If you are going I will go. 

2. No one will dispute the fact Edison is a great inventor. He 

was selected of his personal qualities. The secret of success is 

nothing more doing well what you can do. 

II. Where the clashes occur insert correlative conjunctions : 

1. Lawn white driven snow. — 2. he must leave, 

I also shall go. — 3. I am debtor to the Greeks and the Barbarians, 

to the wise to the unwise. — 4. this man sinned his 

parents. — 5. If you are not afraid, why remain silent? — 6. I 

know not it be of a public a private nature. 

III. Name the conjunctions in the folloiving sentences: 

1. " In the meadows and the lower ground, 

Was all the sweetness of a common dawn." — Wordsworth. 

2. That Rousseau had given an equally beautiful picture was no 
reason why Goethe should not repeat it. 

3. Think no man so perfect but that he may err. 

4. You will never live to my age unless you keep yourself in breath 
with exercise. 

5. Both Rousseau and Goethe were immoral in their lives and in 
their writings. Rousseau wielded great influence in French literature; 
Goethe, in German. Indeed, Goethe's influence has been felt through- 
out Europe. 

6. "Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and 
writing an exact man. And, therefore, if a man write little, he had 
need have a great memory ; if he confer little, he had need have a pres- 
ent wit ; and if he read little, he had need have much cunning, to seem 
to know that he doth not." — Lord Bacon, — Of Studies, The word 
conference, as used by Bacon, means conversation. 



140 ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER XIII. 
INTERJECTIONS. 

1. An interjection is a word that expresses emotion ; 
as, Lo ! the conquering hero comes. 

2. The interjection stands alone ; it has no gram- 
matical relation with any other words ; as, Hush ! he is 
speaking. 

3. There are interjections corresponding to nearly every 
emotion of the human breast ; and the same interjections 
may express different emotions, according to the tone of 
voice. 

4. The principal interjections are those expressing : 

(1) Joy or glad surprise ; as, Oh ! ah! Hurrah ! Huzza ! 

(2) Pain or suffering ; as, Oh! ah! alas! well-a-day! dear me! 

(3) Disappointment ; as, Whew ! 

(4) Contempt ; as, Fie ! fudge ! faugh ! pshaw ! 

(5) Calling or directing attention ; as, Hello ! ho ! hem ! lo ! 

(6) Repression ; as, Hist ! hush ! tut ! mum ! 

(7) Imitation; as, Pop ! bang! bow-wow ! ding-dong! 

(8) Greeting or parting ; as, Good morning ! good bye ! fare- 
well ! adieu ! 

5. Other parts of speech are used as interjections : 

(1) A noun ; as, Peace ! be still. 

(2) A verb ; as, Hail ! Macbeth. Behold ! I come. 

(3) An adjective ; as, Welcome ! 

(4) A pronoun ; as, Why ! how could he ? What ! you weep. 

(5) An adverb ; as, Away ! Indeed ! is it possible ? 

6. In the dramas of Shakespeare and other Elizabethan 
English writers, there are forms of interjections, now 






INTERJECTIONS. 141 

obsolete, which were once oaths or solemn asseverations. 
Such are : 

Marry = Marie = the Blessed Virgin Mary. 

Zounds=Our Lord's wounds. 

Egad = corruption of an oath including the name of God. 

7. Some of our interjections are of foreign origin. Such 
are : 

Gra.mmercy= Grand merci, the French for many thanks. 

Adieu— to God, i.e., To God I commend you. 

Alas— ah ! lasso, the Italian for Ah, miserable me! 

O dear=0 Bio ; the Italian for God. 

Amen=yea, verily, be it so, in Hebrew. 

O dear me=0 Bio mio, the Italian for my God. 

8. Some interjections are composed of English phrases. 
Such are : 

Good bye = God be with ye. 

Farewell —Fare and well ; that is, "May you fare or speed well 
on your journey." 

Prithee = I pray thee. 

Well-a-way=old English wd-ld-wd, equivalent to the modern 
English words woe !-lo /-woe ! 

Well-a-day=a corruption of tvell-a-way. 

The noun wassail is derived from the old English salutation wes hdl 
—ives thu hdl— be thou hale=good health. It was the form of saluta- 
tion employed in drinking. 

EXERCISES. 
/. Insert a suitable interjection : 

1. Hark ! the trumpet sounds. ! they had been friends in 

youth. ! for the rarity of Christian charity. 

2. ! to the home of your childhood. ! you have been 

caught at last. ! noble man. ! that you should act so fool- 



142 ETYMOLOGY. 

ishly. — The boy, ! where was he ? ! both for the man and 

his victim. 

II. Name and classify the interjections in the following 
sentences : 

1. Hark ! heard you not the thunder's roar ? 

2. Ah, well ! for us all some sweet hope lies 
Deeply buried from human eyes. — Whtttier. 

3. Lickety, lickety, switch, we came to the ford. — Bret Harte. 

4. Jones, my dear! — dear! my Jones, 
What is become of you ?— Hood. 

5. A fox went out in a hungry plight, 

And he begged of the moon to give him light, 
For he had many miles to trot that night, 
Before he could reach his den, !— 

6. " Bobolink! Bobolink! 

Now what do you think ? 
Who stole a nest away 
From the plum-tree to-day ? " 
" Not I," said the dog, " bow-wow! 
I wouldn't be so mean, anyhow ! " 

— Lydia Maria Child. 

III. Name the different parts of speech in the passage 
here quoted from Swift : 

" There are two faults in conversation, which appear very different, 
yet arise from the same root, and are equally blameable; I mean an 
impatience to interrupt others, and the uneasiness of being interrupted 
ourselves. The two chief ends of conversation are to entertain and 
improve those we are among, or to receive those benefits ourselves; 
which whoever will consider, cannot easily run into either of these 
two errors; because, when any man speaks in company, it is to be 



WORDS USED IN VARIOUS SENSES. 143 

supposed he does it for his hearers' sake, and not his own; so that 
common discretion will teach us not to force their attention, if they 
are not willing to lend it ; nor, on the other side, to interrupt him who 
is in possession, because that is in the grossest manner to give the 
preference to our own good sense. — Swift. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

WORDS USED IN VARIOUS SENSES. 

1. There are certain words in the language that are used 
in various senses, according to the construction of the 
sentence into which they enter. The list usually given by 
grammarians is as follows : 

2. A or an is used as : 

(i) An article ; as, A beautiful face. 

(2) An adjective ; as, This ribbon costs fifty cents a yard. 

(3) A conjunction ; as, Catch me an thou canst, where an 

has the same force and meaning as if. Nay, an thou'lt 

mouth, I'll rant as well as thou.— Hamlet, V. i. The older 
writers use and for an in this sense; as, "And you love 
me, let's do it ; I am dog at a catch." — Twelfth Night, 
II. iii. 

Sometimes and and if are used together; as, "I pray thee, Launce, 
and if thou seest my boy, bid him make haste." — Two Gentlemen of 
Verona, III. i. In these instances the an becomes and according to 
the phonetic laws of the language. The d was introduced just as it 
was introduced into the common pronunciation of the word drowned, 
which was drownded. 

In like manner the expression yon-a became yond-er. 

(4) A preposition ; as, He lies a-bed. Here a is the old Eng- 
lish preposition on, in, an, and not the article. 



144 ETYMOLOGY. 

3. About is used as : 

(1) An adverb; as, He walked about; there were about twenty 
present. 

(2) A preposition ; as, He was about his father's business. 

4. Above is used as : 

(1) An adverb ; as, The sailor went above. 

(2) A preposition ; as, The skylark soars above the clouds. 

(3) A noun ; as, The missile came from above. 

(4) An adjective ; as, The above remark. 

This last form has not the sanction of some grammarians, but good 
writers employ it. 

5. Adieu is used as : 

(1) An interjection ; as, Adieu ! Adieu I my native land. 

(2) A noun ; as, I bade my native land adieu. 

6. After is used as : 

(1) A preposition ; as, William comes after me. 

(2) An adverb ; as, I saw him after you had left. 

7. All is used as : 

(1) A pronominal adjective ; as, All men; good bye to you all. 

(2) An adverb ; as, We were left all alone. 

8. Any is used as : 

(1) A pronominal adjective ; as, Are there any reasons? 

(2) An adverb ; as, Is he any better? 

9. As is used as : 

(1) An adverb ; as, As white as snow. 

(2) A conjunctive adverb, the correlative of as, so ; as, As far 
as he can go; so weak as to need support. 

(3) A conjunction ; as, " As he was ambitious I slew him. 



WORDS USED IN VARIOUS SENSES. 145 

(4) Part of a conjunctive phrase ; as, He looks as though he 
were sick. 

(5) Part of a prepositional phrase ; as, As for me. 

(6) Part of a predicate phrase ; as, As follows, as regards. 

In parsing the expressions as follows, as regards, some gram- 
marians introduce the pronoun it as the subject; others make as the 
subject. 

(7) A pronoun ; as, These are such books as I can recommend. 

As is derived from the compound word al-so=ealswa=also, by the 
dropping of the 1 (Orthog. chap. i. 20). Like its root so it was orig- 
inally pronominal. As such, it was used in the fourteenth century. 
We have a remnant of its pronominal sense in such vulgarism as 
this : " Here is the man as struck the first blow," 

10. Before is used as : 

(1) An adverb ; as, He had written before I saw him. 

(2) A preposition ; as, Go before him. 

11. Both is used as : 

(1) A pronominal adjective ; as, I like both. 

(2) A correlative conjunction ; as, He is both old and ugly. 

12. But is used as : 

(1) A preposition ; as, All but him had fled. 

(2) A conjunction ; as, I go, but I return. 

(3) An adverb ; as, Tis but sl little faded flower ; but for this. 

(4) A relative ; as, There is no flock but has a black sheep = 
There is no flock that has not a black sheep. But is here 
equivalent to that not. 

So also in the lines : 

There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, 
But has one vacant chair.— Longfellow. 

But was originally a preposition. It is composed of the two words 
be and out. In provincial English it is equivalent to without. The 



146 ETYMOLOGY. 

modern tendency of the language is to use but in a conjunctive sense. 
We find good writers using the expression but he. Cardinal Newman 
so uses it; and in the Rheims-Douay version of the Scriptures we read: 
"And that no man might buy or sell, but he that hath the character." 
— Apocalypse xiii. 17. 

13. By is used as : 

(1) A preposition ; as, "Long labors both by sea and land he 
bore." — Dryden. 

(2) An adverb ; as, I saw John go by. 

(3) An adjective ; in the compound words by-play, by-street 
Here the word by means simply aside or incidental. 

(4) A noun ; when it is also spelled bye ; as, " The Synod of 
Dort condemneth upon the bye even the discipline of the 
Church of England." — Fuller. Here, upon the bye means 
in passing, or iyicidentally . In the same sense we say by 
the bye. 

(5) A noun ; in the compound words by-law, by-word. Here 
the word by has a different origin and meaning. It comes 
from the Danish word big, which means town. Thus, by- 
word means town-talk; as when we say that a person's 
name is a by-word, that is, it is the talk of the town. So, 
by-law means town-laiv. The suffix -by in the names 
Whitby, Derby is of the same Danish origin, meaning 
town. 

14. Else is used as : 

(1) An adjective ; as, Nobody else. 

(2) An adverb ; as, How else can he travel? 

(3) A conjunction ; as, He must be generous, else he would 
not have given so freely. 

(4) A noun ; as, " Would it were else." — Ford, — 

Witch of Edmonton, II. i. 

Else is the possessive elles of an old English root el, meaning other. 
Our expression elsewhere was formerly otherwhere. Hooker so uses it. 



WORDS USED IX VARIOUS SENSES. 147 

15. Except is used as : 

(1) A verb ; as, The tariff-bill excepts raw material. 

(2) A preposition ; as, He saw nothing except water. 

(3) A Conjunction ; as, Except the Lord build the house, they 
labor in vain that build it. 

16. For is used as : 

(1) A preposition ; as, He that is not for me is against me. 

(2) A conjunction ; as, Give thanks unto the Lord, for He is 
good ; for his mercy endure th forever. 

(3) With a verb ; as, This is a grace to he prayed for. 

(4) With an adverb ; as, For as much as. 

(5) With the preposition to ; as, " There went out some of the 
people on the seventh day for to gather." — Exod. xvi. 27. 
King James's Version. For to here means in order to. 
The form is now considered a vulgarism. 

17. Full is used as : 

(1) A noun ; as, He came at the full of the moon. 

(2) A verb ; as, They full cloth at the factory. 

(3) An adjective ; as, A full measure. 

(4) An adverb ; as, 

" Full many a flower is born to blush unseen." — Gray. 

18. Ill is used as : 

(1) A noun (in the plural); as, The ills of life; "to hastening 
ills a prey." 

(2) An adjective ; as, He was ill on his birthday. 

(3) An adverb ; as, 

" HI fares the land, to hastening ills a prey." — Goldsmith. 

19. Like is used as : 

(1) A noun ; as, Like begets like. 

(2) An adjective ; as, They both have like chances. 



148 ETYMOLOGY. 

(3) An adverb ; as, 

" The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold." — Byron. 

(4) A verb (transitive) ; as, He likes his dog, but he loves his 
friends. 

(5) A verb (unipersonal) ; as, "I willingly confess that it likes 
me better where I find virtue in a fair lodging." — Sir 
Philip Sidney. The form it likes me is equivalent to it 
pleases me. 

20. Needs is used as : 

(1) A noun ; as, His needs were many. 

(2) A verb ; as, William needs assistance ; John needs to go. 

(3) An adverb ; as, He must needs go ; that is, he must go of 
necessity. 

The verb need, when followed by an infinitive, sometimes loses its 
personal ending -s ; as, It need not be. So also, in a former stage of 
the language, men said me-think for me-thinks. 

21. Now is used as : 

(1) A noun ; as, Eternity is a continuous Now. 

(2) An adverb ; as, Now is the accepted time. 

(3) A conjunction ; as, " Now Barabbas was a robber." 

22. Save is used as : 

(1) A verb ; as, God save you all. 

(2) A preposition ; as, Five times received I forty stripes 
save one. 

(3) A conjunction ; as, " And that no man might buy or sell 
save he that hath the mark. — Rev. xiii. 17. King James's 
Version. The Rheims-Douay version reads : " but he that 
hath the mark." — Apoc. xiii. 17. 

23. So is used as : 

(1) An adverb ; as, So nice we grow. 



WORDS USED IN VARIOUS SENSES. 149 

(2) A conjunction ; as, There was nothing for us to do, so we 
returned home. 

(3) A pronoun ; as, 

We think our fathers fools, so wise we grow ; 
Our wiser sons, no doubt, will think us so. 

— Pope,— Essay on Criticism. 

As we have already seen, so is the root from which as is derived. 

24. The is used as : 

(1) An article ; as, The man. 

(2) An adverb ; as, The more, the better; " The more busy we 
are, the more leisure we have." — Hazlitt. 

(3) The is also employed with an adverb to form an adverbial 
phrase ; as, I like you the better for that. 

At an early stage of our language the had all the inflexions of ad- 
jectives, in number, gender, and case. 1 Before comparatives, the 
retains the force of the old instrumental case thi ; e. g., the more=eo 
magis. In like manner, thus was originally the instrumental case of 
this. 

25. Till is used as : 

(1) An adverb ; as, Wait till you hear from me. 

(2) A preposition ; as. Stay till Wednesday. 

(3) A verb ; as, Farmers till the ground. 

(4) A noun ; as, Place the money in the till. 

Till is of Danish origin. It was sometimes used as a sign of the 
infinitive. In consequence, our into was formerly intil. The word 
first makes its appearance as a preposition in the northern districts of 
England. We find it in the Durham Gospels, which date from the 
eleventh century. 

26. Well is used as : 

(1) A noun ; as, He drew water from the well. 

1 See Historical Outlines of English Accidence, by Dr. R. Morris, pp. 125, 126. 
This is an admirable book, to which we are indebted for many a hint. 



150 ETYMOLOGY. 

(2) A verb ; as, Tears began to well from his eyes. 

(3) An adjective ; as, Is it well with thee ? 

(4) An adverb ; as, The exercise was well written. 

27. While is used as : 

(1) A noun ; as, It is not worth the while. 

(2) An adverb ; as, While he was writing, the visitor entered. 

(3) A verb ; as, Some people foolishly while away precious time. 

28. Worth is used as : 

(1) A noun ; as. Slow rises worth by poverty depressed. 

(2) An adjective ; as, This book is worth a dollar. 

(3) A verb; as, u Wo worth the day." — Ezech. xxx. 2. 

Worth originally meant become, and also be. In fourteenth century 
English, worth was equivalent to shall be ; as, 

" To-morrow worth ymade the maiden's bridal." 

— Vision of Piers Plowman, B. iii. 43. 

Ymade is the perfect participle corresponding to our word made. 
In present English the sentence would read: 

" To-morrow shall be made the maiden's bridal." 

29. Yon, Yond, Yonder is used as : 

(1) An adjective ; as, " Near yonder copse." 

— Goldsmith, — Deserted Village, 136. 

(2) An adverb ; as, The river is yonder. 

(3) A demonstrative pronoun ; as, "Yonder } s a bad man." 

— Beaumont and Fletcher, II. p. 400. 

The Scotch still use yon as a pronoun ; as, Yon says the cows have 
come home = that man says. Yon is derived from the same pro- 
nominal root with yea and yes. That root is ge. 



ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 151 

CHAPTER XV. 

ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES, 
CLASSIFICATION OF. SENTENCES AS TO FORM. 

1. Considering their form, sentences are divided into 
three classes : simple, complex, and compound. 

2. A simple sentence is a sentence that expresses but 
one proposition ; as, The stars are suns. 

A proposition is the combination of one subject with one predicate 
making a complete sense. It is, as already defined, a thought or judg- 
ment expressed in words. 

3. A complex sentence is a sentence containing at 
least two propositions, one of which is principal and the 
other subordinate ; as, When the sun shines, the boys 
play. 

4. The principal proposition is called the independent 
clause ; the subordinate proposition is called the de- 
pendent clause. 

5. A clause is a component proposition of a compound 
or complex sentence. 

6. A clause is independent when, taken by itself, it ex- 
presses complete sense ; as, He who labors faithfully will 
be rewarded. He ivill be reivarded is the independent 
clause. 

7. A clause is dependent when it modifies or completes 
the sense of another proposition ; as, They who would 
govern others must first govern themselves. Who tvould 
govern others is the dependent clause. 



152 ETYMOLOGY. 

8. In complex sentences one or other of the propositions 
may be contracted, by omission of the following parts : 

(i) Of the subject ; as, (He) Who has not virtue is not truly 
wise. 

(2) Of subject and predicate ; as, Though (he was) famous for 
strength, he was a coward. 

(3) Of the object ; as, He has the booh (that) I presented. 
These omissions are usual in comparison ; as, He is smaller 
than I (am small). He is not as well informed as I thought 
(he was informed). 

9. A compound sentence is a sentence composed of 
two or more independent propositions ; as, 

" In youth it sheltered me, 
And Til protect it now." — George P. Morris. 

10. In general, a sentence contains as many clauses as 
there are finite verbs expressed or understood; as, " x He | 
2 who does a good turn \ * should forget it ; | 3 he | 4 who 
receives one | 3 should remember it." 

11. Clauses are divided into four classes: substantive, 
adjective, adverbial, and explanatory. 

(1) Substantive ; as, How the accident occurred is not known. 

(2) Adjective ; as, I read of the glad year which once had been. 

(3) Adverbial ; as, He lives wherever he can find a resting-place. 

(4) Explanatory; as, Steamships, which are a modem inven- 
tion, make quick voyages. 

12. A substantive clause is a clause that takes the 
place of a noun. 

13. A substantive clause may be : 

(1) The subject of a sentence ; as, That he could do no more 
is clear. 



ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 153 

(2) The object of a transitive verb or of a preposition ; as, The 
law -student read what was essential in Blackstone's Com- 
mentaries. 

(3) The attribute of an intransitive or neuter verb; as, My 
wish is that you go immediately. 

14. An adjective clause is a clause that performs the 
functions of an adjective in qualifying a noun, a pronoun, 
or a substantive phrase or clause. 

(1) A noun ; as, This is the carriage in which I travel. 

(2) A pronoun ; as, He that studies ^diligently reaps his reward. 

(3) A substantive phrase ; as, In the frequent reading of the 
New Testament, which he had reluctantly begun, he found 
great consolation. 

(4) A substantive clause; as, That he wrote an admirable 
essay, which was no easy task, is due to his painstaking in- 
dustry. 

15. An adverbial clause is a clause that performs the 
functions of an adverb in modifying a verb, an adjective, 
an adverb, or a phrase or clause that is adjective or ad- 
verbial. 

(1) A verb ; as, He found the watch where he had left it. 

(2) An adjective; as, John is older than his brother is. 

(3) An adverb ; as, Mary recited as well as had been expected. 

(4) An adjective phrase; as, Faithful to his promise, which 
cost him something, he came at the appointed time. Faith- 
ful to his promise is an adjective phrase, modified by the 
adverbial clause which cost him something. 

(5) An adverbial phrase ; as, He smote him with such force 
that he died. With such force is an adverbial phrase mod- 
ified by the adverbial clause that he died. 

(6) An adjective clause ; as, This is the book that John lent 
his brother when the latter was returning home. That 



154 ETYMOLOGY. 

John lent his brother is an adjective clause, modified 
by the adverbial clause when the latter was returning 
home. 
(7) An adverbial clause ; as, " As the boy is, so will be the 
man." As the boy is, is an adverbial clause performing 
the office of an adverb of manner. Sow will the man be? 
" As the boy is." The clause so will be the man is also ad- 
verbial, as-so being correlative adverbs. 

1 6. Adverbial clauses may express one or other of the 
following relations : 

(i) Time, answering to the question When ? as, I was present 
when the lecture was delivered. 

(2) Place, answering to the question Where f as, Go where 
duty calls thee. 

(3) Manner, answering to the question How ? as, He hurt his 
knee as he was ascending the ladder. 

(4) Degree, which is frequently introduced by the conjunction 
than or as ; as, He is taller than I am.— Pecksniffs are as 
plentiful as blackberries are. 

(5) Cause or purpose, answering to the question Why ? as, 
He is beloved, for he is good. 

(6) Condition, introduced by if, though, although, unless, ex- 
cept : as, He will be ruined unless he reforms. 

(7) Consequence, generally introduced by that; as, He 
studied so hard that he won the prize. 

17. An explanatory clause is a clause that explains 
some noun or pronoun in a sentence ; as, It is evident that 
he to ill be elected. 

18. Clauses may be connected by conjunctions, relative 
pronouns, or conjunctive adverbs : 

(1) Conjunctions; as, Bring me your book and I will write 
your name in it. 



ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 155 

(2) Relative pronouns ; as, Here is your book, which I have 
read carefully. 

(3) Conjunctive adverbs; as, He arrived when we were at 
dinner. 

MODELS FOR THE ANALYZING OF COMPLEX AND COMPOUND 

SENTENCES. 

I. 

A man who employs his leisure moments well, will accomplish much 
during his life. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. 

The principal clause is, A man will accomplish much during his 
life ; the dependent clause is, who employs his leisure moments well. 
The connective is who. 

The subject of the principal clause is man; the predicate is will ac- 
complish ; the object is much. 

The subject is limited by the article a, and modified by the depend- 
ent clause ; the predicate is modified by the simple adverbial phrase 
during his life; the object is unmodified. The principal word of the 
phrase is life, which is modified by the adjective adjunct Ms. 

The subject of the dependent clause is who; the predicate is em- 
ploys ; the object is moments. 

The subject is unmodified ; the predicate is modified by the ad- 
verbial adjunct well ; the object is modified by the adjective adjuncts 
his and leisure. 

II. 

Prosperity gains friends, hut adversity tries them. 

This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of the two in- 
dependent clauses, Prosperity gains friends and adversity tries them, 
connected by but. 

The subject of the first clause is prosperity ; the predicate is gains ; 
the object is friends. 

The subject of the second clause is adversity ; the predicate is tries ; 
the object is them. Neither has any adjuncts. 



156 ETYMOLOGY. 

III. 

Men believe that reason is lord over their words ; but it happens, too, 
that words exercise a great power over the human mind. 

This is a compound declarative sentence. The connective between 
the two members is but. 

The first member is complex, consisting of the independent clause 
men believe and the dependent clause reason is lord over their words, 
The connective is that. 

The subject of the dependent clause is reason ; the predicate is is; 
the attribute is lord. The attribute is modified by the adjective phrase 
over their words. The principal part of the phrase is words, which is 
modified by the adjective adjunct their. 

The second member is also complex, consisting of the independent 
clause it happens and the dependent clause that words .... human 
mind. The connective is that. 

The subject of the principal clause is it; the predicate is happens. 

The subject is modified by the dependent clause, which is ex- 
planatory. 

The predicate is modified by the adverbial adjunct too. 

The subject of the dependent clause is words ; the predicate is exer- 
cise; the object is power. The object is modified by the adjective ad- 
juncts a and great, and the predicate is modified by the simple 
adverbial phrase over the human mind. The principal word of the 
phrase is mind, which is modified by the adjective adjuncts the and 
human. 

EXERCISES. 

/. Tell whether the sentence is simple or complex, and 
underline the predicates : 

1. Faint hearts make feeble hands. — Do the spoils belong to him 
who gains the victory ? — Do you appreciate Browning's great soul- 
studies?— I knoV that he is difficult to understand. — Every great poet 
is obscure to his contemporaries. 

2. The man that has a taste for poetry has an inexhaustible source 
of amusement. — Ask him to teach you to appreciate the great masters 



ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 157 

of song.— How nobly Wordsworth sings!— He who reads him diligently 
will learn to look upon Nature with a new sense. — Have you read his 
Ode to Duty ? 

II. Draw one line under the principal, and two lines 
under the dependent clause : 

A person who speaks truth is always respected. — Them that honor 
me I will honor. — Byron, though he wrote with great force, lacks the 
qualities belonging to the highest order of art. — Persons who are easily 
vexed are unpleasant companions. — The key that is used is always 
bright,— Lines that are parallel never meet.— They who slander others 
break the divine commandment. 

III. Analyze the following sentences : 

1. Sir Walter Raleigh, when paying a visit to the poet Spenser, first 
planted the potato in Ireland. — 2. All good books are interesting com- 
panions. — 3. Emerson writes beautifully, but thinks badly. — 4. No man 
can be happy who is not virtuous. — 5. Brownson saw the truth and 
beauty of the Church; Emerson did not see it. — 6. Hatred stirreth up 
strifes, but charity cove re th all sins. — 7. Give what you can spare to 
the poor. — 8. Deeds are fruit, but words are only leaves. — 9. How great 
is the reward of the martyrs, who preferred death to apostasy ! — 10. 
Have you regretted any act of charity that you ever performed? — 
11. Virtue is its own reward; vice brings its own punishment. — 12. Ben 
Jonson, who was a great poet and a great student of his language, ad- 
mired Shakespeare's genius. — 13. Temperance and exercise strengthen 
the body and improve the mind. — 14. He whose life is upright and 
pious preaches sublimely. — 15. "Kind words are the music of the 
world. They have a power which seems to be be3 r ond natural causes, 
as if they were some angel's song, which had lost its way, and come on 
earth, and sang on undyingly, smiting the hearts of men with sweetest 
wounds, and putting for the while an angel's nature into us. In truth, 
there is hardly a power on earth equal to them ; it seems as if they 
could almost do what in reality God alone can do — namely, soften the 
hard and angry hearts of men." — Faber, — Kind Words. 



158 ETYMOLOGY. 

IV. Analyze the following sentences : 

1. I hear the reapers singing go 

Into God's harvest ; I, that might 
With them have chosen, here below 

Grope shuddering at the gates of night, 

— Lowell, — Extreme Unction. 

2. Lowell's Extreme Unction is a powerful poem illustrating the 
despair and disappointment of a wasted life at the threshold of death. 
Mr. W. T. Stead, the editor of The Pall Mall Gazette, says of its influ- 
ence upon him: "It made a deeper dint on my life than any other 
printed matter I ever read, before or since." 

3. Green be the turf above thee, 
Friend of my better days ; 
None knew thee but to love thee, 
None named thee but to praise. 

— Fitz-Greene Halleck. 

4. Thou who wearest that cunning, heaven-made organ, a tongue, 
think well of this. Speak not, I passionately entreat thee, till thy 
thought have silently matured itself, till thou have other than mad 
and mad-making noises to emit ; hold thy tongue till some meaning 
lie behind, to set it wagging. — Carlyle. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

SENTENCE-BUILDING :— RULES. - 

1. Sentence-building not only consists in developing 
phrases and clauses and in multiplying sentences ; it also 
consists in rejecting all unnecessary words, phrases, clauses, 
or sentences. 

2. Where two or more words are employed to express the 
same thought, only the most fitting word should be retained. 



SENTENCE-BUILDING : — RULES. 159 

Example.— Suppose we write : None rejoice and are glad in the 
season of Easter less than those who have not sorrowed and grieved for 
their sins in the season of Lent. This sentence is diffuse, and may be 
recast as follows : 

1. Instead of rejoice and are glad, write simply rejoice. 

2. Instead of the season of Easter, write Easter-tide. 

3. Instead of sorrowed and grieved for their sins, write grieved. 
Making these corrections, the sentence reads as Cardinal Newman 

expressed it : "None rejoice in Easter-tide less than those who have 
not grieved in Lent." — Parochial and Plain Sermons, Selections, p. 191. 

3. When two or more phrases are employed to express 
the same thought, only the most fitting phrase should be 
retained. 

Example* — Some of you, I do not doubt for a moment, have seen 
and remember Genoa ; you have seen that queenly city with its streets 
of palaces, rising tier above tier from the water, girdling with the long 
lines of its bright white houses the vast and immense circular sweep 
of its harbor, at the mouth of which lies a huge natural mole of rock, 
crowned on the top by its grand, noble, and magnificent light-house 
tower. 

This sentence is also diffuse, and may be improved upon as follows : 

1. Instead of I do not doubt for a moment, write I doubt not. 

2. Instead of have seen and remember, write remember. 

3. Instead of vast and immense circular sweep, write vast sweep. 
This expresses the extent and the circular feature of the harbor. 

4. Instead of crowned on the top, write crowned. 

5. Instead of grand, noble, and magnificent, write magnificent. 
The sentence thus transformed will read as Dr. Thomas Arnold 

wrote it : " Some of you, 1 doubt not, remember Genoa ; you have 
seen that queenly city with its streets of palaces, rising tier above tier 
from the water, girdling with the long lines of its bright white houses, 
the vast sweep of its harbor, the mouth of which is marked by a huge 
natural mole of rock, crowned by its magnificent light-house tower." 
— Lectures on Modern History. 



160 ETYMOLOGY. 

4. Where two or more clauses are employed to express 
the same thought, only the most fitting clause should be 
retained. 

Example, — Every foe who had approached and had drawn suffi- 
ciently near him, had felt the might of that terrible axe, but his axe 
could not guard and defend him against this awful shower of arrows. 

This sentence may be reduced as follows : 

1. Instead of had approached and had drawn sufficiently near, write 
had come near. This expresses everything intended. 

2. Instead of guard and defend, write guard. 

The sentence will then read as Professor Freeman wrote it when 
describing the prowess of Harold in the battle of Senlac : ' ' Every foe 
who had come near him had felt the might of that terrible axe, but 
his axe could not guard him against this awful shower of arrows." — 
Old English History for Children. 

5. Sometimes the repetition of clauses or phrases adds 
to the force or beauty of a sentence. 

Example. — " With what tenderness he sings, yet with what vehe- 
mence and entireness ! There is a piercing wail in his sorrow, the 
purest rapture in his joy ; he burns with the sternest ire, or laughs 
with the loudest or slyest mirth ; and yet he is sweet and soft, ( sweet 
as the smile ivhen fond lovers meet, and soft as their parting tears'" 
— Carlyle, — Essay on Burns. 

Here the phrase soft and sweet is repeated in a more developed form 
with great force and beauty. 

6. Where two or more sentences are employed to ex- 
press the same thought, only the most fitting sentence 
should be retained. 

Example. — "The true gentleman does not cause pain to those in 
whose company he finds himself. The true gentleman is careful to 
avoid giving them annoyance. The true gentleman makes it a point 
to consider their feelings and not wound them." 



SENTESTCE-BUILDING : — RULES. 161 

All these sentences are simply putting the same idea in different 
words. Here is the same idea sketched with a master's hand : 

" The true gentleman carefully avoids whatever may cause a jar or a 
jolt in the minds of those with whom he is cast: — all clashing of 
opinion, or collision of feeling, all restraint, or suspicion, or gloom, or 
resentment ; his great concern being to make every one at his ease and 
at home. He has his eyes on all his company ; he is tender towards 
the bashful, gentle towards the distant, and merciful towards the 
absurd ; he can recollect to whom he is speaking ; he guards against 
unseasonable allusions, or topics which may irritate ; he is seldom 
prominent in conversation, and never wearisome." — Cardinal New- 
man, — Idea of a University, p. 209. 

7. No adjective or adverb should be employed that does 
not add to the sense,, or complete the sense of a sentence. 

Example. — " Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, was rather 
low-sized — not tall — of stature; he was florid and highly colored in 
complexion; his face had the air of being authoritative, serious, 
earnest, frank, and sincere." 

Here the words low-sized and not tall cannot stand together; neither 
can florid and highly-colored, nor frank and sincere. Now note how 
Carlyle paints this hero. He piles adjective upon adjective ; but it is 
like the great painter placing the proper colors upon the canvas. The 
picture stands out a thing of life when the last touch is given. 

"He was not tall of stature, this arbitrary king: a florid-complex- 
ioned, stout-built man; of serious, sincere, authoritative face. Man 
of short, firm stature ; stands at his ease, and yet like a tower. Most 
solid ; eyes steadfastly awake ; cheeks slightly compressed, too, which 
fling the mouth rather forward .... Face, figure, and bearing, all in 
him is expressive of robust insight and direct determination; of 
healthy energy and authority, a certain air of royalty reduced to its 
simplest form." — Carlyle,— History of Frederick the Great. 

Copy this passage, supplying all words and phrases implied. Then 
parse the different words. The grammatical construction may be im- 
proved ; but in doing so the expression is weakened. 



162 ETYMOLOGY. 

8. Always use a short word in preference to a long 
word. 

Children naturally use short words when speaking about matters 
that they understand. The short word is, therefore, the natural word. 
It is frequently the most expressive. Words of Old English origin are 
generally short and forcible. Thus, the word daily is preferable to 
diurnal, and the word think reaches the intelligence sooner than 
the word cogitate. 

9. In writing a sentence,, express it in words as simple, 
natural, and direct as those you employ in speaking. Ke- 
member that the object of all language is to reveal thought, 
and not to conceal it. 

10. In order to get the most fitting phrase or form of 
expression in a sentence, the sentence should be written 
several times, until that form the most correct and most 
fitting is found. 

The greatest writers, men who have given their whole lives to com- 
posing, cannot at first hit upon the best form of expression. It is only 
after repeated trials that they finally come upon the form that suits 
them best. An example will illustrate the usual difficulties under 
which one labors in attempting to write a composition: 

Example. — Suppose we would write upon Good Books. The 
opening sentence would pass through the following various forms : 

1. Good books are very good things. 

Now, this is too indefinite ; in fact, it says nothing. Another form : 

2. Good books are good companions. 

This is more definite; but there is still something wanting. 

3. Books are our solace in trouble, our instructors in difficulty, our 
companions in solitude. They speak to us in good language ; they re- 
prove us without giving offence ; they strengthen our resolves for good ; 
they interpret the vague sentiments of our nature; they instruct, edify, 
and improve. 



SENTENCE-BUILDING : — RULES. . 163 

Here we have struck upon something like the proper form of ex- 
pression. Still, some of the clauses might be better arranged; the 
opening sentence should be more introductory. And it occurs to us 
that, if we were to speak of the good hook, instead of using the plural 
form good books, we could give our sentences a fuller form of expres- 
sion. Let us try : 

4. The good book is a boon and a blessing. It becomes a solace in 
trouble, an instructor in difficulties, a companion in solitude. It enter- 
tains us in polished laiiguagc ; it reproves us without giving offence ; 
it strengthens our resolves for good ; it interprets the under-cur rents of 
our thought and the vague sentiments of our nature ; it is an instru- 
ment of help, edification, and improvement. 

EXERCISES. 

2. Condense the following three sentences to one, omitting 
all superfluous words : 

1. A tree is adorned with green leaves. — 2. Some trees are laden 
with ripe fruit. — 3. A tree is a beautiful object under certain circum- 
stances (as in 1 and 2). 

77. Combine the sentences in each of the folloiving three 
groups, omitting all superfluous words : 

1. Knowledge elevates the mind. 

Knowledge improves the faculties of the mind. 
Knowledge procures for us the respect of others. 
Knowledge enables us to add to the pleasures of life. 
Knowledge enables us to fulfil our duties with greater facility. 

2. The children were playing in a field. 
The field was near the river. 

The field was beautifully shaded. 

The field was a favorite spot for the children. 

3. Sleep strengthens the mind and the body. 
Sleep prevents weariness of life. 



164 ETYMOLOGY. 

Sleep brings to the unfortunate a temporary forgetfulness of 

their misery. 
Sleep taken in excess causes a loss of time. 
Sleep taken in excess enfeebles the body. 
Sleep taken in excess stupifies the mind. 

III. Construct a sentence upon experience, from the 
following points. 

1. The knowledge that comes from experience is the most vivid. 

2. Give an illustration within your own experience. 

3. Cardinal Manning thus writes on the subject : 

" There is no knowledge like the knowledge of experience. How hard it is to 
realize the look of any country by description in a book ; or to know the spirit of a 
man from his written life ; or to appreciate sweetness from illustration, or harmony 
from the written language of music. How the least persoual experience by sight or 
hearing gives to all these a vividness and reality which make them at once part of 
our minds forever."— Sermons^ vol. iii. 1847. 

IV. Write a feiv short sentences on the influence of 
nature. Illustrate from your own experience, recounting 
your feelings tvhen strolling through the country, or watch- 
ing a sunset, or boating on the river. 

Wordsworth, in one of the noblest passages in English literature, 
has thus summed up the influence of Nature : 

" Nature never did betray 

The heart that loved her ; 'tis her privilege 
Through all the years of this our life, to lead 
From joy to joy; for she can so inform 
The mind that is within us, so impress 
With quietness and beauty, and so feed 
With lofty thoughts, that neither evil tongues, 
Rash judgments, nor the sneers of selfish men 
Shall e'er prevail against us, or distrust 
Our cheerful faith that all which we behold 
Is full of blessings.'"— The Excursion. 

Read and re-read this passage, till it is understood, and then write 
out the idea contained in it in your own words. 



PART III 
SYNTAX. 



1. Syntax treats of the relations of words in a sentence. 

2. These relations are threefold ; namely, relations of 
agreement, relations of government, and relations of con- 
nection. 

3. Relations of agreement are the relations existing 
between 

(1) The verb and its subject. 

(2) The noun and its qualifying words, the article and ad- 
jective. 

(3) The noun and its pronouns. 

(4) The adverb and the words it modifies, be they verbs, ad- 
jectives, or other adverbs. 

4. Relations of government are the relations existing 
between 

(1) The verb and its object. 

(2) The preposition and its object. 

(3) The possessive case and the name of the person or thing 
possessed. 

5. Relations of connection are the relations of words 
expressed by the conjunction. 

These various relations cover the whole ground of Syntax. 
The interjection expressing no relations with other words has not, 
properly speaking, a syntax. 



166 SYNTAX. 

6. The following terms are employed in explaining the 
structure of a sentence : 

(i) Apposition. — When one noun is used to explain another it 
is said to be in apposition with the noun it explains ; as, 

Dickens, the novelist, is more than Dickens the writer. 

(2) Pleonasm. — Superfluous words, such as the use of a pronoun 
in the same sentence with its noun, sometimes occur either 
through carelessness or for emphasis. This redundancy is 
called pleonasm : 

Yon silver beams, 
Sleep they less sweetly on the cottage-thatch 
Than on the dome of kings ?— Shelley. 
The world it is empty, the heart will die.— Coleridge. 

(3) Ellipsis. — Words necessary to complete the grammatical 
construction of a sentence are often omitted. This omission 
is called ellipsis : 

" Whose is this image and superscription ? They say nnto him 

Caesar's" That is, Ccesar's image and superscription. 



CHAPTER I. 

SUBJECT AND VERB. 



1. A verb agrees with its subject in person and 
number. 

2. The subject of a verb may be, 

(i) A noun ; as, God is our fortress. — Shakespeare. 

(2) A pronoun ; as, He comes, the herald of a noisy world. — 
Cowper. 

(3) A root-infinitive ; as, 

To laugh were want of goodness and of grace, 
And to be grave exceeds all power of face. — Pope. 






SUBJECT AKD VERB. 167 

(4) A participial infinitive; as, Trembling came upon me. — 
Coleridge. 

(5) A phrase ; as, 

To have ideas is to gather flowers ; to think is to weave them into gar- 
lands.— Madam Swetchine. 

(6) A sentence ; as, What one man owns cannot belong to 
another. — Ch anning. 

Dust thou art, to dust returnest, 

Was not spoken of the soul.— Longfellow. 

3. The subject of a verb in sentences of affirmation is 
generally placed before the verb; as, 

" The mountains look on Marathon, 
And Marathon looks on the sea." — Byron. 

4. The subject follows the verb or its auxiliary: 

(1) In emphatic or forcible expressions ; as, 

Not to me returns 

Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn.— Milton. 
Then burst this mighty heart. — Shakespeare. 
Flashed all their sabres bare.— Tennyson. 
Vanished the Saxon's struggling spear; 
Vanished the mountain-sword.— Scott. 

(2) When the verbs say, reply, think, and the like, are made 
part of a dialogue ; as, 

" Have you dined ? " asked Mr. Wickfield. " Thank 'ee. I am going 
to dine," said Mr. Maldon.— Dickens. 

(3) In interrogative sentences ; as, 

O, when will death 
This mouldering old partition- wall throw down ?— Young. 

5. When the subject of a verb is a noun or pronoun it 
is in the nominative case ; as, 

" The child is father of the man." — Wordsworth. 
" They also serve who only stand and wait."— Milton. 



168 SYNTAX. 

6. When the noun or pronoun has qualifying words, 
its person and number are not affected ; as, 

"The most laborious and successful student is confined in his re- 
searches to a very few of God's works." — Channing. 

7. When the noun or pronoun is connected with other 
nouns or pronouns by means of a preposition, it alone 
determines the person and number of the verb. 

Thus we say : 

" The steamer, with the crew and passengers, was lost; " not, "were 
lost." 

" Day after day passes away; " not, "pass away." 

" The second book of the iEneid is one of the greatest masterpieces 
that ever were executed by any hand; " not, " was executed." 

8. Two or more nouns in the singular number con- 
nected by and, take a verb in the plural ; as, 

" Honor and shame from no condition rise; 
Act well your part, there all the honor lies." — Pope. 

9. Two or more nouns in the singular number, with- 
out any connecting word, take a verb in the plural ; as, 

" Art, empire, earth itself, to change are doomed." 
" Patriotism, morality, every public and private consideration, 
demand our submission to lawful government." 

10. When two or more nominatives stand for the same 
person or subject, the verb agrees with them in the 
singular; as, 

"The philosopher and poet was banished from his country." 
" A purpose, a design, an intention, is evident in everything." 
" The truth, and the truth only, is worth seeking for its own 
sake." 



SUBJECT AND VERB. 169 

11. Two or more singular nominatives, whether con- 
nected by and, or unconnected, when preceded by the words 
each, every, either, no and not, take the verb in the singu- 
lar ; as, 

" Every man, woman, and child knows this to be so." 
" Not a bird and not a beast, not a tree and not a shrub was to be 
seen." 

12. Two or more singular nominatives grammatically 
connected by or, nor, as well as, or by any other disjunc- 
tive, take the verb in the singular ; as, 

There is not a word nor a thought that has not its bearing upon 
human character. 

Poetry, as well as painting and music, is a fine art ; not " are fine 
arts." 

13. Where either of two or more nominatives connected 
by a disjunctive, is in the plural, the verb should also be 
in the plural ; as, 

Neither riches nor poverty affect a man's happiness. 

An example or two are sufficient to illustrate the general observa- 
tion. 

Some grammarians say that the verb should agree with the nomina- 
tive nearest to it. Others say that the verb should agree with the 
nominative that is the principal word. 

" Not we, but God, is educating us." — Kingsley. 

14. A collective noun takes the verb in the singular 
number when the idea conveyed by the noun is singu- 
lar; as, 

An army of many thousands was assembled. 

The House of Lords is sl brake upon the House of Commons. 



170 SYNTAX. 

15. A collective noun takes a verb in the plural num- 
ber when the idea conveyed by the noun is plural ; as, 

The assembly were divided in their sentiments. 

" An audience, even though ignorant themselves of the subjects of 
an examination, can comprehend when questions are answered and 
when they are not." — Cardinal Newman. 

A collective noun conveys the idea of unity when the idea is of a 
whole taken simply as a whole. It conveys the idea of plurality when 
the idea is of a whole considered as made up of its respective parts. 

16. The title of a book, a sum of money, or a period of 
time, in the plural form, is usually followed by a verb in 
the singular; as, 

The Annals of Tacitus is the statesman's manual. 
" Three hundred thousand dollars is to constitute the capital for the 
company." " This seven years has passed." 

17. The word whereabouts, when a noun, takes a 
singular verb ; as, 

The whereabouts of the child was unknown to him. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE VERB. 



I. The verb be takes the same case after as that which 
precedes it ; as, 

It is /; not, it is me. I believed it to be him; not, to be he. 

Note that in the example, It is /, the word it is an expletive, and 
the real subject is I ; still the verb agrees with it. This was not 
always so. In Chaucer we read : 



THE VERB. 171 

" Awake, my knight I Lo ! it am I 
That to you speak." 

" It are such folk that loved idleness."— Ibid. 

So also in the old English the construction was : ic sylf hit eom 
=it am I myself. 

2. When the verb be has a nominative after and before, 

and one nominative is plural, or consists of two or more 
singular nouns connected by and, the verb agrees with the 
nominative that most naturally forms its subject ; as, 

"The wages of sin is death" Here death becomes the subject of 
the verb rather than wages. 

His illness was pleurisy and rheumatism. The same rule holds 
true for clauses, phrases, and sentences ; as, 

" All my strength and all my art 
Is to touch the gentle heart.'" — Scott. 

3. Intransitive and passive verbs also take the same 
case after as before, when both words refer to the same 
person or thing ; as, 

" He returned a friend, who came a foe" — Pope. 
" The child was named John" 

4. A verb in the subjunctive mood has generally one of 
the following words before it : 

(1) If ; as, If I go you cannot come. 

(2) Though ; Though you hate me, I will still strive to do you 
good. 

(3) Unless ; Unless you study, you cannot become learned. 

(4) Except ; Except he ride, he cannot reach his destination. 

(5) Whether ; I know not whether the sentence be correct. 

(6) That ; " Would that charity reigned in every heart ! " 

(7) Lest ; "I kept guard over him, lest he do violence to him- 
self." 



172 SYOTAX. 

5. While the verb is occasionally used in the subjunc- 
tive mood, the tendency of modern writers is to employ 
it exclusively in the indicative mood. The distinction 
in the employment of each of these moods may best be 
cleared up by the following definitions and rules : 

(1) A sentence is said to be hypothetical when the truth of 
one proposition is dependent upon the truth of another proposi- 
tion ; as, 

"If thou read this, O Caesar, thou mayest live."— Shakespeabb. 

(2) The clause that contains the condition is called the condi- 
tional clause. In the example here given, thou read this is the con- 
ditional clause. 

(3) The clause that contains the consequent of the supposition, 
is called the consequent clause. Here, thou mayest live is the con- 
sequent clause, because it follows as a consequence from the first 
clause, if thou read this. 

(4) When the conditional clause expresses an action past or pres- 
ent, the verb should be in the indicative mood ; as, 

"If satire charms, strike faults, but spare the man."— Shakespeare. 

We know it for a fact that satire charms ; hence the verb is in the 
indicative. 

" If the creature is ever setting in motion an endless series of physical causes 
and effects, much more is the Creator."— Cardinal Newman. 
" If a man has built a house, the house is his." 
" Whether the translation was ever published I am not aware*" 

(5) When the conditional clause expresses a hope, a wish, or a 
thought containing the idea of futurity, the verb should be in the 
subjunctive mood ; as, 

" He will not be pardoned, unless he repent." 

" Would that he were here" 

M On condition that he come, I will consent to stay." 

" I would learn my trade thoroughly if I were you." 

" What shall we do, 
If he approach with a still greater army?"— Longfellow. 



THE VERB. 173 

(6) When the conditional clause expresses an uncertainty, the verb 
is used in the subjunctive ; as, 

41 If it were so, it was a grievous fault."— Shakespeabe. 
Here there is doubt that it is so. 

" Yet if our heart throb higher at its sway, 
The wizard note hath not been touched in vain."— Scott. 

(7) When there are various connected clauses in a sentence, the verb 
in each should be used in the same mood. For this reason the fol- 
lowing sentence is incorrect : 

" If there be but one body of legislators, it is no better than a tyranny ; if there 
are only two, there will want a casting vote." 

The sentence should read as follows : 

" If there be but one body of legislators, it will be no better than a tyranny ; if 
there be only two, there will want a casting vote." 

6. The subjunctive may be expressed without the particle 
if by placing the verb before its subject. 

" If I had a book, I would read " = " Had I a book, I would read." 
" If I were you, I would go" = "Were /you, I would go." 

7. The words may, can, could, would, and should are 
employed in the potential mood. 

8. The same distinction that obtains in the use of shall 
and will in the indicative, is observed in the use of should 
and would in the potential mood ; namely, would refers to 
an exercise of the will, and should implies dependent action 
or obligation. 

Would is used to express, 

(1) A wish: "Would I had employed usefully all my spare 
hours ! " 

" Would God I had died for thee, O Absalom ! " 

(2) A custom : " She would weep all day." 
"He would often talk about these things." 



174 SYNTAX. 

(3) Determination : "He would depart, I could not stop him." 
" He would persist in his course in spite of all I could say." 

Should is used to express, 

(1) Dependence: "I should like to go to town, and would go 
if I could." 

(2) Duty or obligation : "He should go by all means, but he 
will not." 

" You should not allow such conduct in your house." 

Should and would are used indifferently to express a conditional 
assertion : 

" I should not do so, if I were in your place." 
" I would not do so, if I were in your place." 
" He would give, if he had the means." 

9. When the infinitive mood comes after the following 
verbs, the particle to is omitted : 

Dare : "I dare do all that may become a man."— Shakespeare. 

Let : " Let darkness keep her raven gloss."— Tennyson. 

Bid : " Nor bid a warrior smile, nor teach a maid to weep." — Scott. 

Make: "The hope thereof makes Clifford mourn in steel." — 
Shakespeare. 

See : " I saiv him run after a gilded butterfly." — Ibid. 

Hear : "I hear thee speak of the better land." — Hemans. 

Feel : " I felt the blackness come and go." — Byron. 

Need : " Her kindness and her worth to spy 

You need but gaze on Ellen's eye." — Scott. - 

Have: "I should be delighted to have you write a preface."— 
Longfellow. 

Gin = begin, in poetry — 

" Amid the copse g an peep 
A narrow inlet still and deep." — Scott. 

Durst : " Thou hast dared 

To tell me what I durst not tell myself."— Dryden. 



THE VERB. 175 

The particle to after the verb dared is here introduced f 3r the sake 
of the metre. 

10. When two or more verbs in the infinitive occur to- 
gether in the same sentence, the particle is inserted before 
the first only ; as, 

" To shake the head, relent, and sigh, and yield." 
"Many authors expect the printer to point, spell, and digest their 
copy, so that it may be intelligible to the reader." 

11. The particle to should not be separated from the 
verb by any intervening word ; as, 

"The student must not expect to always find study agreeable." 
Read : ' ' Always to find" 

Instead of to incessantly think, say, to think incessantly, 

12. The infinitive verb should not be omitted at the end 
of a sentence, leaving the particle to ; as, 

"I have not written, and I do not intend to" Read: "I do not 
intend to write" 

" He has not done it, nor is he likely to" Read: " Nor is he likely 
to do it" 

13. Active transitive verbs govern in the objective 
case \ as, 

" We carved not a line, and we raised not a stone." — C. Wolfe. 

14. The object of a transitive verb may be a noun or any 
of its equivalents. 

(1) A noun : " The old man shook his head" — Dickens. 

(2) A pronoun : 

" Where the enamoured sunny light 
Brightened her that was so bright." — Wordsworth. 

(3) An infinitive in -ing : "He loved planting and building." — 
Evelyn. 



176 SYNTAX. 

(4) An infinitive with to: " Learn to labor and to wait" — 
Longfellow. 

(5) An infinitive phrase : 

"Ladies, you deserve 
To have a temple built you." — Shakespeare. 

(6) A sentence: "As we made our way through the crowd, I 
perceived we brought good humour with us" — Goldsmith. 

15. When a sentence is the object of a verb, it is gener- 
ally introduced by that ; as, 

"The good woman saw at once that her son was a genius and a 
poet" — Washington Irving. 

" Teach him that states of native strength possest, 
Though very poor may still be very blest." — Goldsmith. 

16. An intransitive verb is sometimes found with an ob- 
ject cognate in meaning with the verb ; as, 

" I have fought el good fight." — St. Paul. 

"Dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before." — Poe. 

17. Certain transitive verbs take two objects, the direct 
and the indirect ; as, 

" Give me the book." Here book is the direct object, and me is the 
indirect object. 

The principal verbs taking both objects are: 

allow cost get make pay promise send throw 

bring deny give offer play provide show write 

buy do leave order pour refuse sing 

carry draw lend pass present sell tell 

18. Transitive verbs of making, appointing, creating, 
teaching, and the like, also take two objectives ; one rep- 
resenting the person, the other the office ; as, 



THE VERB. 177 

" Nature had made Mr. Churchill a poet ; but destiny had made 
him a schoolmaster." — Longfellow. 

" He was gathered under the wings of one of those good old motherly 
dames, found in every village, who cluck together the whole callow 
brood of the neighborhood, to teach them their letters and keep them 
out of harm's way." — Washington Irving. 

19. The object is usually placed after the verb ; but it 
is placed before the verb — 

(1) When emphasis requires it: 

" Honey from out the gnarled hive I'll bring, 
And apples wan with sweetness gather thee. — Keats. 

(2) When the object is a relative or interrogative pronoun : 

"Whom hast thou, then, or what, to accuse, 
But Heaven's free love dealt equally to all ? " — Milton. 

20. The imperfect and the preperfect participles de- 
rived from transitive verbs, take an object ; as, . 

"Respecting ourselves^ we shall be respected by the world." — 
Burke. 

"He was finally sent off to bed blowing little bubbles with his 
mouth. " — Longfellow. 

" Having finished the work, he withdrew to his home." 

21. When the article is used before a participle, 
the participle should be followed by the preposition 
of; as, 

" In the forming of his sentences he was very exact." 

22. Sometimes the sentence is improved by the omission 
of both article and preposition ; as, 

" By establishing good laws we secure our peace." This is prefer- 
able to the form, " By the establishing of good laws." 



178 SYNTAX. 

23. The preposition of should not be used after the par- 
ticiple when the article is omitted before the participle. 

Instead of: "From calling of names they proceeded to blows," 
read, " From calling names they proceeded to blows." 

24. A noun or pronoun before a participle should be in 
the possessive case, when the noun or pronoun represents 
an active agent ; as, 

" Much will depend on the pupil's composing frequently." 
" Lady Macbeth' s walking in her sleep is an incident full of tragic 
horror." 

25. When the noun or pronoun represents a passive 
subject, the possessive case should not be used ; as, 

"The daily instance of men dying around us." Not, "men's 
dying'' 

"When they speak of John having inherited a fortune." Not, 
"John's having inherited." 

26. The imperfect active participle is sometimes used 
in a passive sense ; as, 

"I hope your new book is printing." — Johnson. 

27. There is also a progressive passive participle ; as, 

" For those who are being educated in our seminaries." — Southey. 

M It was being uttered." — Coleridge. 

" It signifies properly, though in uncouth English, one who is being 
beaten." — Whately. 

When we say: " I saw one dragging into light, as I passed by the 
ruins of a palace," the meaning is obscure; but, using the progressive 
passive form, the meaning becomes clear: "/ saw one being dragged 
into light" 



THE KOUN. 179 

CHAPTER III. 

THE NOUN. 

1. A noun or pronoun, used to explain another noun or 
pronoun, is put by apposition in the same case ; as, 

— " So work the honey bees, 
Creatures that by a rule in nature teach 
The art of order to a peopled kingdom. — Shakespeare. 

2. A phrase or a sentence may be in apposition 

to a noun ; as, 

" let us still the secret joy partake, 
To follow virtue e'en for virtue's sake" — Pope. 

" In the serene expression of her face he read the divine beatitude, 
'Blessed are the pure in heart.' " — Longfellow. 

3. Apposition may be expressed : 

(1) By direct union of the words: "The steamer Germania 
arrived." 

(2) By the word as : " St. Francis de Sales is no less esteemed 
as a ivriter than he is loved as a man." 

(3) By the word or : " The puma, or the American lion, is found 
in Brazil." 

(4) By the word that when there is an appositive sentence : 

" I held it truth, with him who sings 
To one clear harp in divers tones, 
That men may rise on stepping-stones 
Of their dead selves to higher things"— Tennyson. 

(5) By transitive verbs of naming, choosing, and the like; 
"Congress named Washington commander-in-chief of the 
forces." 



180 SYNTAX. 

4. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case is gov- 
erned by another noun with which the former generally 
stands in the relation of possession ; as, 

" St. Paul recounts his sufferings for the faith." 

"The Church's warfare with the world ends only with time." 

5. The term belonging to the possessive word is some- 
times omitted ; as, 

James heard mass at St. Monica's ; meaning St. Monica's Church. 

The senator got his diamond pin at Tiffany's ; meaning Tiffany's 
jewelry store. 

Under this rule falls that peculiar construction in our language by 
which the possessive ending is retained after the preposition of; as, I 
have a volume of his among my books ; that is, a volume of his books. 
A discovery of Franklin's ; that is, one of Franklin's discoveries. 

Here note the distinction between the expressions, A bust of 
Horatio Seymour and A bust of Horatio Seymour-' s. 

A bust of Horatio Seymour—^ representation of Horatio Seymour. 

A bust of Horatio Seymour's=8L bust belonging to Horatio Seymour. 

6. When two or more nouns, connected by and, ex- 
press joint ownership «the possessive case-ending is attached 
only to the last ; as, 

"William and Mary's reign." 

7. When the possessive is a compound word, a complex 
term, or the like, the possessive sign is attached only to 
the last ; as, 

The Mayor of Boston's address ; my father-in-law's will. 

8. When nouns in apposition are used in the possess- 
ive, the case-ending is attached to the last ; as, 

For David my servant's sake. 



THE NOUN. 181 

g. But when both nouns refer to distinct and separate 
things, each retains the possessive case-ending ; as, Web- 
ster's and Worcester's dictionary. 

10. When two or more nouns are connected by a dis- 
junctive, or by the phrase as well as, each retains the pos- 
sessive case-ending ; as, 

" They relieve neither the hoy's nor the girl's distress." 
She had the physician's, the surgeon's, as well as the apothecary's 
assistance. 

11. If the noun expressing possession is antecedent to 
a relative clause, the form in of is employed ; as, 

" This was the face of a man whose life was spent rather in a career 
of thought and literary effort, than in a career of active and laborious 
strife." — Masson. 

12. Sometimes the possessive case-ending is omitted ; as, 
" They arrived weary and fatigued after a twenty miles walk." 

13. Where the addition of the 's would render the word 
awkward the s is omitted, and the apostrophe retained ; 
thus, we say 

For conscience' sake, and not for conscience's sake. 

But not all nouns ending in s dispense with the 's. Thus custom 
says " St. James's," meaning the English Court, and not " St. James'." 
So also we speak of "Willis's Rooms," not Willis' Rooms." 

14. A noun or pronoun, the object of an action or of a 
relation, is said to be in the objective case. 

(1) Of an action; that is, of an active transitive verb; as, 
Love your enemies. 

(2) Of a relation ; that is, of a preposition ; as, Do good to 
them that persecute you. 



182 SYNTAX. 

15. A noun or pronoun may also be the object of the 
participle of a transitive verb ; as, 

William was seen studying his lessons in the evening. 

16. A noun or pronoun addressed is said to be in the 
nominative case addressed; as, 

"Rise, crowned with light, imperial Salem, rise!" — Pope. 

17. A noun or pronoun limited by a participle, and de- 
pending on no other word in a sentence, is said to be in the 
nominative case absolute; as, 

"Spring returning, the swallows reappear." 

18. A noun or pronoun used by pleonasm is in the 
nominative case independent; as, 

"Here she stood, 
Engirt with many a florid maiden-cheek, 
The woman-conqueror." — Tennyson. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE PRONOUN. 



1. A pronoun agrees with the noun which it represents 
in person, number, and gender. 

2. To this rule occur the following exceptions in regard 
to personal pronouns : 

(1) Neuter nouns, when personified, take the pronoun in the 
gender of personification ; as, 

" To him who in the love of Nature holds 
Communion with her visible forms, she 
Speaks a various language."— Bryant. 



THE PRONOUN. 183 

(2) Authors and editors use the pronoun we to represent a 
singular antecedent ; as, We regard the tornado as a visita- 
tion of Providence, 

(3) The plural you is used when addressing one person; as, 
John, are yon going out ? 

(4) A noun in the common gender sometimes takes a mascu- 
line and sometimes a neuter pronoun ; as, The duty of the 
parent to educate his child cannot he transferred to the 
State. 

The baby sleeps in its cradle. 

3. Personal pronouns, when those of different per- 
sons occur together, admit of a certain order in their use: 

(1) In the singular number the second person has precedence 
over the others ; as, Yon and he and I are called upon to 
speak. The third person has precedence over the first ; as, 
He and I must go. 

(2) In the plural number the first person has precedence ; next 
comes the second, and lastly the third ; as, We and they 
sail to-morrow. 

4. The case of a personal pronoun depends upon its re- 
lation with the verb or the preposition. 

(1) After than or as the pronoun may be in the nominative or 
the objective case; thus, I loved none better than him; that 
is, than I loved him. He reads more than I ; that is, than 
I read. The following are therefore incorrect: 

" Is she as tall as me t "—Shakespeare. 
" She suffers hourly more than me."— Swift. 
"The nations not so blessed as thee"— Thomson. 

(2) After let the pronoun should be in the objective case ; as, 
Let ns study Shakespeare together. The following sentence 
is incorrect : 

"Let you and /endeavor to improve the enclosure."— Southey. 



184 SYNTAX. 

(3) Pronouns governed by between should be in the objective 
case; as, Between him and me. Hence the following is 
considered erroneous : 

" All debts are cleared between you and /."— Shakespeabe. 

(4) Pronouns following the word but may be in the objective or 
the nominative, according as this word has a prepositional 
or a conjunctive force. He examined all but me. Here but 
may be taken as a preposition governing the pronoun me ; 
or it may be taken as a conjunction, in which case the sen- 
tence would read: He examined all, but me lie examined 
not; when me would be the object of examined. Considering 
but a conjunction, the following examples are correct : 

44 Which none but Heaven and you and /shall hear."— Shakespeare. 
44 Which none may hear but she and thou.'''— Coleridge. 

Cardinal Newman and others among our most careful modern 
writers, incline to the use of but simply in a conjunctive sense. 

5. When the antecedent of the pronoun is a collective 
noun used in a sense implying unity, the pronoun should 
be in the singular number, neuter gender ; as, 

"Congress holds its sessions in Washington." 

6. When the antecedent is a collective noun, used in a 
sense implying plurality, the pronoun should be in the 
plural number ; as, 

" The party were quarreling among themselves." 

" To this, our pathway gently- winding leads, . 
Where march a train with baskets on their heads." — Pope's Iliad. 

7. The collectives many, score, few, and the like, when 
preceded by the article a, take a pronoun in the plural 
number ; as, 

"A great many are prepared to share their opinion; only a few 
can be found to share their purse." 



THE PKOKOUN. 185 

8. An antecedent modified by the words many a takes 
a singular pronoun ; as : 

" Many a man tramples upon his nobler self." 

" Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air." — -Gray. 

9. When the pronoun is not in the same clause with the 
words many a, it may be in the plural ; as, 

" It has been the fate of many a genius, that they have been but 
ill-understood by their contemporaries." 

" In Hawick twinkled many a light, 
Behind him soon they set in night." — Scott. 

10. A pronoun haying two or more singular antecedents 
referring to different persons or things connected by 
and, should be in the plural number ; as, 

The lazy, the careless, and the vicious are hoarding regrets for 
their old age. 

11. A pronoun having two or more singular antecedents, 
referring to the same person or thing, connected by and, 
should be in the singular number ; as, 

" This wit, orator, and statesman, left his impress on the age." 

12. Two or more singular antecedents connected by 
and, and modified by the words each, every, no, or simi- 
lar distributives, require the pronoun in the singular 
number; as, 

" Every plant and every tree produces others after its own kind." 
" It is the cause of every reproach and distress which has attended 
your government." — Junius. 



186 SYNTAX. 

13. A pronoun having two or more singular antecedents 
connected by a disjunctive conjunction, should be in the 
singular; as, 

"Neither wealth nor honor can secure the happiness of its votaries." 

" What virtue or what mental grace, 
But men unqualified and base 

Will boast it their possession ? " — Cowper. 

14. A pronoun having two antecedents, one singular 
and one plural, connected by a disjunctive, should be in 
the plural ; as, 

" Neither the teacher nor his pupils can shirk their duty." 

15. Two singular antecedents of different genders con- 
nected by or sometimes take a pronoun corresponding to 
the gender of each ; as, 

Every man or woman should examine his or her conscience. 

16. Sometimes the pronoun is put in the plural ; as, 

" When a man or woman shall make a vow to be sanctified, and 
will consecrate themselves to the Lord." — Numbers vi. 2. 

17. Sometimes when the antecedent is indefinite both 
pronouns are used ; as, 

" I make this comment and solicit the reader's attention to it in his 
or her consideration of this tale." — Dickens. 

18. Two or more pronouns expressing difference of per- 
son, connected by a conjunction, may be represented by 
a pronoun in the first person plural, if one of the ante- 
cedents is in the first person ; and if one of the antecedents 
is not in the first person, by a pronoun in the second 
person plural. 



THE PKONOUK. 187 

" John and J are pleased with our presents." 
" You and James study your lessons well." 
" Either you or /will be in our place in due time." 
"Your character, which I, or any other writer may now value 
ourselves by drawing. " 

19. The mingling of thou and you in the same sentence 
is inelegant and inaccurate. For instance : 

' ' So, as thy sun rises over the humble house-top round about your 
home, shall you wake many a day to duty and labor." — Thackeray. 
For thy sun read your sun. 

20. The pronoun it has several peculiar functions in 
English : 

(1) It stands for the name of child, animal, or living thing, 
the sex of which is likely to be overlooked ; as, 

" The child lost its toy." " The mouse ran into its hole. 1 ' 

(2) It is used indefinitely in regard to persons or things ; as, 
" Who is it t It is I." " What is it t I do not know what it is." 

(3) It is used as an expletive, introducing a sentence ; as, 

" 'Tis the sunset of life gives me mystical lore, 

And coming events cast their shadows before."— Campbell. 

In this instance it takes the place of the real subject, which 
comes after the verb. 

(4) It is made to stand for an antecedent word, phrase, or 
sentence; as, 

" Here is the book ; to whom shall I give it ?" 
" You have done him good, and need not regret it. " 

(5) It is made to stand for a general state of affairs ; as, 

" We roughed it in the woods." 

44 Think of me when it shall be well with thee." 

(6) It is used idiomatically without reference to any ante- 
cedent word, phrase, or sentence ; as, 



188 SYNTAX. 

" Trip it as you go 
On the light fantastic toe."— Milton. 

(7) It is used impersonally ; as, It snows. It rains. 

21. The compound personal pronouns take the verb in 
the same person and number as the pronouns from which 
they are derived ; as, 

" Which way I fly is hell; myself am hell."— -Milton. 

"Captain, yourself are the fittest."— Dryden. 

" Ourself to hoary Nestor will repair." — Pope's Homer. 

22. Sometimes the compound pronoun is used exclusively 
in the third person ; as, 

a Myself hath been the whip." — Chaucer. 
" Myself knoweth not where." — Heywood. 
" Conversation is but carving; 
Carve for all, yourself is starving." — Swift. 

This form grows out of the fact that as early as the fourteenth 
century the word self began to lose its original adjective meaning, 
and came to be regarded as a noun. 

23. One, when used pronominally, does not admit any 
other pronoun to represent it. Thus we say : 

One speaks one's mind ; not one speaks his mind. 

24. The relative pronoun may be either the subject or 
object of a verb, or the object of a preposition,, or it may 
express the relation of possession. 

(1) Subject of a verb: 

" I see the golden helmet that shines far off like flame."— Macaui ay. 

(2) Object of a verb : 

* k Shall he alone, whom rational we call, 
Be pleased with nothing, if not blessed with all ? "—Pope. 



THE PRONOUN. 189 

(3) Object of a preposition : 

" And Rome may bear the pride of him, 
Of whom herself is proud."— Macaulay. 

(4) Relation of possession : 

" There is a reaper whose name is Death."— Longfellow. 

25. The relative should be placed near its antecedent : 

" The man who has charity for his neighbor, has more than riches." 

26. When the antecedent is a pronoun of the first or of 
the second person, the relative takes the person of the 
antecedent ; as, 

" I, who am your friend, tell you so." 

27. When the relative has antecedents different in per- 
son, it agrees with that which is nearest ; as, 

" You are an enemy who is fair in speech and foul in thought." 
" You, who are fair in speech, are an enemy foul in thought." 

28. When the antecedent is a collective noun taken in 
a singular sense, the relative is which ; as, 

" A board of managers, which is composed of sensible men, governs 
the institution." 

29. When the antecedent is a collective noun taken in 
a plural sense, the relative is who ; as, 

" The poor, who had nothing to offer but their lives, seemed ready 
to devote them to his service." — Scott. 

30. The relative whose has generally for antecedent 
rational beings ; as, 

"The man ivhose views of life are purely mercenary, knows not the 
meaning of his existence." 



190 SYNTAX. 

31. The relative whose has also for antecedent inani- 
mate objects, especially in poetry ; as, 

" That undiscovered country from whose bourne 

No traveller returns." — Shakespeare. 
" He spoke of love, such love as spirits feel, 

In worlds whose course is equable and pure." 

—Wordsworth. 

Whose is in this case the possessive of which. The tendency of the 
best modern writers is to break down all distinction between the forms 
whose and of which. 

32. The relative that may take the place of who or 
which, subject to the following rules : 

(1) That is employed after an adjective or an adverb in the 
superlative degree; as, "Read the best books that you can 
procure." 

(2) After the pronominal adjectives all, every, same: " Others 
have the same difficulties to overcome that you have" 
"I did for him all that I could." 

(3) After the interrogative who : "Who, that has slandered 
his neighbor, is not bound to restore his good name ? " 

(4) After the pronoun it, used indefinitely: " It was he that 
spoke about Brownson." 

(5) After two or more antecedents which separately would re- 
quire who and which ; as, " Such are the authors and 
the writings that I proposed discussing." - Separately 
we would read authors whom and writings which. 

33. The rules governing the use of who, which, and 
that, are as follows : 

(1) Who relates to persons, and is used when a quality, or at- 
tribute, or circumstance is added to the meaning conveyed 
by the antecedent clause; as, u I met the Earl of Denbigh, 



THE PRONOUN. 191 

who showed me through the House of Lords." This sen- 
tence is equivalent to the following: "I met the Earl 
of Denbigh, and he showed me through the House of 
Loi*ds." 

(2) Which relates to things, and is also used when a quality, or 
attribute, or circumstance is added to the meaning conveyed 
by the antecedent clause; as, "He gave me a letter, which 
he requested me to read." That is, "He gave me a letter, 
and it he requested me to read" 

(3) That refers either to persons or things, and is used simply to 
qualify or restrict the sense of the antecedent; as, 

" I read the book that I found on the table. 1 ' 
"Thoughts that breathe and words that burn."— Wordsworth. 
"Music that brings sweet sleep down from the blissful skies."— Ten- 
nyson. 

To render the distinction clearer we will take the following in- 
stances : 

1. When we say, " The heirs, who have been notified, will be pres- 
ent," we mean that all the heirs will be present, and that they have 
been notified accordingly. 

2. When we say, " The heirs that have been notified will be pres- 
ent," we mean that only the notified heirs will be present, to the exclu- 
sion of all others. (See Ayres' edition of Cobbett's English Gram- 
mar, Editor's note, pp. 5-10.) 

34. The relative what represents things, names, or 
qualities, and has no antecedent expressed ; as, 

" Tell me what you want and I shall attend to it." 
" I scarcely know what to call him." 
" It desires what it has not, the beautiful." — Shelley. 
" The world which credits what is done, 
Is cold to all that might have been." — Tennyson. 

In this last sentence, the clause what is done is the object of the 
verb credits, and what is the subject of is done. In some sentences 
what may be resolved into that which, but it is contrary to the genius 



192 SYNTAX. 

of the English language to do so. It is simply a changing of English 
idiom into a foreign form of expression. 

35. What is used in various functions : 

(1) As an interrogative pronoun : What are you doing ? 
This was the primitive use of what as a neuter of who. 

(2) As a relative : " What I do now, you know not" 

(3) As an interrogative adjective : What manner of man 
is this, that even the winds and the sea obey him. — Matt, 
viii. 27. 

(4) As a demonstrative adjective : What boohs I read, I 
buy ; i. e., Those books that I read, I buy. 

(5) As an adverb, in which case the word is repeated: "He 
had so used the matter that what by force, what by 
policy, he had taken from the Christians thirty small cas- 
tles" — Knolles. " What by force, what by policy" = 
"partly by force, partly by policy." In such instances 
what is generally followed by with. 

(6) As an interjection : 

"What! can you lull the winged winds asleep ? "—Campbell. 

36. What should not be used for that : 

" He would not believe but what I did it." Read : " He would not 
believe but that I did it." 
The sentence, " / have nothing but what you see," is correct. 

37. The demonstrative pronoun must be in the same 
number as the noun that it points out ; as, 

This picture, that book. 

38. A plural noun having a collective meaning in the 
singular number, takes a singular demonstrative ; as, 

" This seven years did not Talbot see his son." — Shakespeare. 
1 They could not speak ; and so I left them both, 
To bear this tidings to the bloody King."— Ibid.,— Richard III. 



THE ARTICLE. 193 

39. When this and that, or their plural forms, are used 
in the same sentence, this points out the noun nearest as 
regards time or space ; as, 

" This book is more expensive than that engraving." 

40. When standing for their nouns, this or these rep- 
resents the latter antecedent, and that or those, the 
former; as, 

" And reason raise o'er instinct as you can, 
In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man." — Pope. 

''Farewell my friends! farewell my foes! 
My peace with these, my love with those." — Burns. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE ARTICLE. 



1. When several objects are separately specified the ar- 
ticle is repeated before each ; as, 

"Toa strong spirit, difficulty is a stimulus and a triumph." — 
Foster. 

" The ilower-like woods most lovely in decay, 
The many clouds, the seas, the rocks, the sands, 
Lie in the silent moonshine." — Coleridge. 

2. When several nouns describe the same person or 
thing, the article is placed only before the first ; as, 

" Gladstone excels as a statesman, orator, and scholar." 
4 'He sent a letter to Mr. Larkin, the bribe-agent and broker on this 
occasion. " — Burke. 



194 SYNTAX. 

3. When several adjectives qualify the same noun, the 
article is usually employed only before the first ; as, 

" The wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind." — Pope. 
" There is about the whole book a vehement, contentious, replying 
manner. " — Macaulay. 

But sometimes the article is repeated for the sake of 
emphasis ; as, 

" A sadder and a wiser man." — Coleridge. 

" The most wicked, the most atrocious, the boldest and most dexter- 
ous villain that that country ever produced."— Burke. 

4. When several adjectives, though qualifying the same 
noun, relate to different objects, the article should be 
placed before each ; as, 

A sweet and a sour apple ; the Old and the New Testament. 
Note that it is erroneous to say, " The first and the second 
pages." 

The sentence should read: " The first and the second page." 

5. The article is placed before the name of a well-known 
person to express one of the same type of character ; as, 

"Shakespeare was the Homer, or father, of our dramatists; Jonson 
was the Virgil, the pattern of elaborate writing." — Dryden. 

" He may be a Newton or a Herschell in affairs of astronomy, but of 
the knowledge of affairs of the world he is quite ignorant.",— Burke. 

6. The indefinite article an, a, is a weakened form of the 
numeral one. Traces of its numerical origin occur in the 
following expressions : 

A hundred dollars. This is less emphatic than to say "one hun- 
dred dollars" 

"A thousand liveried angels lacquey her." — Milton. 



THE ARTICLE. 195 

7. The article a should not be placed before a word used 
in its most general sense ; as, 

" What kind of booh is this ?" not, " What kind of a book." 

8. There are a few peculiar forms of expression in 
which the article a stands between the noun and certain 
words : 

(1) Many : " For many an April and many a May." — Chaucer. 

(2) What : " What a piece of work is man! " — Shakespeare. 

(3) Such: "Such a downy tip was on his callow chin." — 
Dickens. 

(4) All : All the difference between stubbornness and firmness 
is, that one is blinded by passion and the other yields to the 
dictates of reason. 

(5) Both : Both the men trudged along their weary course. 

9. When the adjective is preceded by certain other 
words, the article stands between it and the noun : 

(1) Too : "You hold too heinous a respect of grief." — Shake- 
speare. 

(2) So : " Tis a very hard calumny upon our soil to affirm that 
so excellent a fruit will not grow there." — Temple. 

(3) As : " We were introduced to as queer an exhibition as the 
eye has often looked on." — Thackeray. 

(4) How : See how short a letter he has written. 

10. The insertion of a before the words few and little 

changes the meaning of the sentence : 

(1) Few men were present = not many men were present. 
A few men were present = some men were present. 

(2) He deserves little sympathy = he deserves scarcely any 
sympathy, if any at all. 

He deserves a little sympathy = he deserves some sym- 
pathy. 



196 SYNTAX. 

11. Where corresponsive conjunctions are used, em- 
bracing two or more nouns, if the article is used with one 
noun it should also be used with the other ; as, 

"Both the author and the publisher are deserving of censure." 
"Neither the conscious receiver of stolen goods nor the willing listener 
to slanderous speech, is free from guilt." 

The definite article the is a remnant of an old English form of the 
demonstrative that. 

The expression that booh is more precise — points out the object 
more clearly — than the expression the book, 

12. The definite article is used : 

(i) For the sake of emphasis: " Shakespeare is the poet of 
England." 

Mountains and rivers are also emphasized by the use of the ; thus 
we speak of the Hudson, the Alps, the Rhine. 

13. When an adjective follows its noun as a special 
epithet, it is preceded by the ; as, 

Alfred the Great, Peter the Hermit. 

14. The, before the comparative of adjectives and ad- 
verbs in certain forms of expression, has the force of an 
adverb ; as, 

The more he learns, the humbler he becomes. (See Etymology, 
Chap. xxiv. 25). 

15. The article a is often used with nouns as a distribu- 
tive ; as, 

" And passing rich with forty pounds a year." — Goldsmith. That 
is, "forty pounds each year." So, Tivo dollars a day, means Two 
dollars each day. 

A-day, a-year, was written in an older stage of the language, on- 
day, on-year. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 197 

CHAPTER VI. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

1. The adjective limits or describes the noun or pro- 
noun to which it relates ; as, 

" An honest man's the noblest work of God." — Pope. 

(i) A limiting adjective defines or restricts the meaning of a 
noun ; as, Ttvo books, the second chapter. 

(2) A descriptive adjective expresses some quality or property- 
belonging to the noun ; as, A sour apple, green ribbons. 

2. An adjective is sometimes used as an abstract 
noun ; as, 

" This age still retains enough of beautiful, and splendid, and bold, 
to captivate an ardent, but untutored, imagination." — Coleridge. 

3. An adjective is sometimes used instead of an ad- 
verb ; as, 

" The green trees whispered low and mildr — Longfellow. 

This use of the adjective for the adverbial form is of frequent 
occurrence in poetry. 

4. The adjective generally precedes the noun. 

Thus, it is more in accordance with the genius of the language to 
say, "a black horse" than to say, as the French do, " a horse 
black." 

5. There are cases in which the adjective is found after 
the noun : 

(1) In poetry the adjective frequently follows the noun ; as, 

" Once upon a midnight dreary."— Poe. 

11 And the spring arose on the garden fair"— Shelley. 



198 SYNTAX. 

(2) In titles of French origin the adjective follows the noun; 
as, The heir apparent, the 'prince regent, the princess 
royal, the poet laureate. 

(3) Participles are sometimes placed after the noun ; as, The 
person named, the objects specified. 

(4) When other words depend upon the adjective, it follows 
the noun ; as, " A mind conscious of right and a heart 
free from guile." 

(5) When qualifying words are prefixed to the adjective, it 
generally follows the noun ; as, 

" A sovereign whose temper, never very gentle, had been rendered mor- 
bidly irritable by age."— Macaulay. 
"A land more bright 
Never did mortal eye behold."— Moore. 

6. When two or more adjectives are connected by and, 
it is of frequent occurrence, in poetry and in old English 
prose, for one to precede the noun, and the others to fol- 
low it ; as, 

" They the holy ones and weakly 

Who the cross of suffering love." — Longfellow. 
" A dark prince and infinitely suspicious" — Bacon. 

7. The comparative degree is employed when one 
of two objects, or two sets of objects, is said to pos- 
sess a quality or property in a greater degree than the 
other ; as, 

"It is better to write one word upon the rock, than a thousand on 
the water or the sand." — Gladstone. 

8. When more than two objects, or two sets of ob- 
jects, are compared, the comparative form should never be 
used. 

It would be incorrect to say, " He is the better of the three." 



THE ADJECTIVE. 199 

9. Forms of speech implying comparison generally re- 
quire than to introduce the second term of comparison ; as, 

" His own tastes would have led him rather to political than to 
commercial pursuits." — Macaulay. 

"Method is not less requisite in ordinary conversation than in 
writing, provided a man would talk to make himself understood." 
— Addison. 

The word than is a modern form of the adverb then. Shake- 
speare and his contemporaries wrote then where we now use than. 
Some writers regarded than as a preposition, and accordingly put the 
pronoun following it in the objective case : 

" She suffers hourly more than me. v — Swift. 

We would consider it more correct to say: " She suffers hourly 
more than I," 

Of the two comparative forms, elder and older, elder is applied to 
persons of the same family, to denote priority of birth ; as, Patrick is 
the elder brother: older is applied to length of time generally, as 
contrasted with new or young; as, John is older than his sister 
Mary. Older takes than; elder never does. 

10. The terms of comparison should be placed as near 
each other as possible ; as, 

" Your plot of ground is larger than John's." 
This construction is preferable to the following : 
" Yours is a larger plot of ground than John's." 

11. Double comparatives are not regarded as good 
forms of speech in modern English. They were employed 
by the old English writers in order to emphasize the com- 
parison ; as, 

"He shall find 

The unkindest beast more kinder than mankind." — Shakespeare. 

Custom recognizes the use of the double comparative lesser instead 
of less. 



200 SYNTAX. 

12. The superlative degree is employed when one of 
more than two objects, or sets of objects/ possesses a quality 
in a greater degree than all the others : 

" Longfellow is the most popular of the American poets." 

13. When only two objects, or sets of objects, are com- 
pared, the superlative should not be used. 

Thus, instead of saying, " This is the best of the two," say, " This 
is the better of the two." 

" Of two evils choose the least." This should read, " Of two evils 
choose the lesser," Still, good writers use the superlative in compar- 
ing two things. 

14. Double superlatives are not regarded as good 
forms of speech in modern English. 

Like double comparatives, they were employed by our elder writers 
to render the expression more emphatic ; as, 

" This was the most unkindest cut of all."— Shakespeare. 

Far from being regarded as incorrect, they were thought to add to 
the force and elegance of the language. Of the double superlative Ben 
Jonson says: " This is a certain kind of English Atticism, or eloquent 
phrase of speech, imitating the manner of the most ancientest and 
finest Grecians, who for more emphasis and vehemencies sake used to 
speak thus." 

15. The superlative is often used when no comparison 
is intended, simply to express excellence or pre-eminence 
in some quality ; as, 

" Yet in these ears till hearing dies, 

One set slow bell will seem to toll 
The passing of the sweetest soul 
That ever looked with human eyes." — Tennyson. 






THE ADJECTIVE. 201 

16. When the comparative degree is used one term of 
comparison should exclude the other ; as, 

Iron is more useful than all the other metals — not, "than all metals' 

17. When the superlative degree is used one term of 
comparison should include the other ; as, 

Iron is the most useful of all metals — not, " of all other metals." 
The meaning of the positive is diminished by adding the suffix ish 
to the adjective; as, white, whitish; gray, grayish. 

18. The words farther and farthest relate to distance ; 
further and furthest to movement in advance, or increase 
in quality ; as, 

" One may go farther and fare worse." " Come further." " I have 
nothing further to say." 

19. Where the idea of collective unity is conveyed a 
singular adjective may precede a plural one ; as, 

" One hundred men." "Every two months." 

20. When a compound adjective is composed of a nu- 
meral and a noun, the noun is put in the singular num- 
ber ; as, 

" A six-foot pole." " Two five-dollar notes." 

21. The ordinal numbers first, second, also the words 
next, last, should qualify the cardinal numbers, rather 
than be qualified by them. 

Thus, we are told that we should say, " The last two letters," and 
" The first two lines," rather than " Two last letters" and " Two 
first lines." 

This form may be in accord with the genius of our language, but 
the forms two last, two first, cannot express any absurdity since they 
are the only forms recognized in French idiom, 



202 SYNTAX. 

"The general rule seems to be that the word to which we wish to 
call special attention is placed first." — B. F. Tweed, Grammar for 
Common Schools, p. 110. 

. 22. The pronominals each, either, and neither, as well 
as the adjective every, qualify in a distributive sense ; 
that is, the noun to which they relate is always singular in 
form ; as, 

Each person, either book, neither side, every man. 

(i) Each refers to one out of many, and is used with reference 
to the individuals taken separately and individually; as, 

" Each in his narrow cell for ever laid, 
The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep."— Gray. 

(2) Every also refers to one out of many, but it is used with 
reference to the whole taken collectively ; as, 

" England expects every man to do his duty."— Nelson. 

23. Either and neither are used to designate one of two 
objects ; as, 

" Either you or he must go; neither wind nor tide waits." 
"Both may excite our wonder, but neither is entitled to our 
respect." — Bacon. 

(1) Neither is the negative of either. 

(2) Some writers use the word either in the sense of both ; as, 

" On either side 
Is level fen, a prospect wild and wide, 
With dike on either hand."— Cbabbb. 

Wicliffe uses the compound ever-either for both. 

(3) Either and neither are sometimes used in relation to any 
indefinite number of objects ; as, 

" Dryden, Pope, and Wordsworth have not scrupled to lay a profane 
hand upon Chaucer,— a mightier genius than either."— George P. 
Marsh. 

" Neither of the ten was there." 



THE ADJECTIVE. 203 

24. The pronominals such and other qualify in a com- 
parative sense : 

(1) Such implies resemblance ; as, 

" Such harmony Is in immortal souls."— Shakespeare. 

(2) Other implies difference ; as, 

" Other sheep I have, that are not of this fold." 

(3) Such and other are also used as nouns ; as, 

"Mere strength of understanding would perhaps have made him such in any 
age."— De Quince y. 

" The one complained to the other." 

As a noun other takes a plural others : " It is of all others that 
which most moves us." 

Other takes than or besides as a eorresponsive, but not but. The 
sentence, "This is none other but the house of God" should read, 
" This is none other than the house of God" 

When other takes than, the things to which it refers are exclusive of 
those mentioned ; as, "He has other views than those you mention;" 
that is to say, " He has views exclusive of those you mention." 

When other takes besides, the things to which it refers are inclusive 
of those mentioned ; as, " He has other views besides those you men- 
tion; " that is to say, "He has views in addition to those you mention" 

25. The pronominals some, any, many, few, all, both, 
none, whether as adjectives or as nouns, are to be taken in 
a quantitative sense ; that is, they express number or 
quantity. 

Some : "Some natural tears they dropt." — Milton. 
"Some of his skill he taught me." — Scott. 

As an adjective, some takes other; as, "Some time or other" 
not, "Some time or another" 

Any : " It is not alleged that, to gratify any anger or revenge of 
my own, I have had a share in wronging or oppressing any description 
of men, or any one man of any description."— Burke. 



204 SYNTAX. 

Any is an = one, with the old English diminutive ig = y. 

Many : " Many speak fair to one's face." 

" thou fond 1 many." — Shakespeare. 

Few : " Few, few shall part where many meet." — Campbell. 

All: "All the contrivances which we are acquainted with are 
directed to beneficent purposes." — Paley. 

Both: "He had disobliged both the parties whom he wished to 
reconcile. " — Macaula y. 

Both takes and: "He is both virtuous and learned;" not "both 
virtuous as well as learned." 

None : " None knew thee but to love, 

None named thee but to praise." . 

The word none is n-one = ne-one = not-one. It is used either 
with a singular or with a plural verb : 

u In at this gate none pass the vigilance here placed."— Milton. 

26. The terms each other and one another are used 
to express reciprocal relations. 

(1) Each other is used of two persons only; as, " Brother and 
sister love each other" 

(2) One another is used of more than two persons; as, " If God 
so loved us we ought also to love one another" 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE ADVERB. 



I. The adverb modifies the verb, adjective, or other 
adverb to which it relates ; as, 

" Merrily, merrily, shall I live now 
Under the blossom that hangs on the bough." — Shakespeare. 



1 The vf ord fond here means foolish. 



THE ADVERB. 205 

2. The adverb is generally placed as follows : 

(i) Before the adjective which it modifies: " The student is 
remarkably diligent." 

(2) Before the adverb : " He speaks very correctly." 

(3) After the verb in the simple tenses : 

" All hail him victor in both gifts of song, 
Who sings so loudly and who sings so long."''— Pope. 

(4) After the first auxiliary in the compound tenses: 

u I will simply set down what occurs to me to say on each side of the question. 1 ' 

—Newman. 

3. An adverb should not stand between the infinitive 
and its sign to ; as, 

To read correctly is a rare accomplishment; not, "to correctly read." 

4. An adverb should be placed as near as possible to 
the word it limits. 

A change in the position of the words only, merely, solely, chiefly, 
first, at least, and other adverbs or adverbial phrases, changes the 
meaning of the sentence. 

Only: He only reads French; he does not speak it. He reads 
only French; not German. 

Merely: He is merely a student; that is, nothing more than a 
student. He merely is a student ; none of the others are students. 
In an earlier stage of the language the word merely was used in the 
sense of entirely, purely ; as, 

"Ulysses was to force forth his access though merely naked."— Chapman. 

Solely : Live that you may do good solely ; that is, nothing but 
good. Live that you solely may do good ; that is, no other person 
than you. 

Chiefly: He writes poetry chiefly ; that is, rather than prose. 
He chiefly writes poetry ; that is, rather than doing anything else. 

First : First he wrote a poem ; that is, before anybody else. He 
wrote a poem first ; that is, before doing anything else. 



206 SYNTAX. 

At least : William is at least as good as John ; if not better. 
William at least is as good as John ; no matter who else may be. 

5. Adverbial phrases and clauses should also be placed 
as near as possible to the words they limit ; as, 

" He read with great care the book that I gave him ; " not, " He read 
the book that I gave him with great care." 

6. An adverb should not be used instead of an adjec- 
tive to express quality ; as, 

The rose smells sweet; not, the rose smells sweetly. The word 
sweet expresses a quality of the rose, and not the manner of smelling. 
Hence it should be an adjective. 

7. An adjective should not be used instead of an ad- 
verb to express time, degree, or manner. 

Time : He came recently ; not recent. 

Degree : The work goes on more slowly than we had expected ; 
not slower. 

Manner : He ran very swiftly ; not swift. It is more easily said 
than done ; not easier. 

8. Two negatives are not employed in modern English 
to express a negation. 

Do not say, " I donH know nothing about it." Say, " I donH know 
anything about it; " or, " I know nothing about it." 

The vulgar form of using two negatives is a remnant of old English 
usage. 

Until the middle of the seventeenth century an accumulation of 
negatives was employed in order to strengthen the negation ; as, 

" Thou never didst them wrong, nor no man wrong.""— Shakespeare. 
41 Therefore saith the King Solomon, 
Be not idle never more."— Robert op Brunnb. 

The adverb ever should not be used for never ; as, " He seldom or 
never writes; " not, " He seldom or ever writes." 



THE ADVERB. 207 

The words scarcely, hardly, and the like, conveying a negative 
sense, do not admit of another negative; as, "J can hardly under- 
stand;" not, " I cannot hardly understand." " He scarcely ever 
reads ; " not, " He scarcely never reads" 

9. A word having a negative prefix or suffix, may take 
a negative in order to express an affirmative thought ; as, 

The case is not hopeless = There is hope for the case. 
He is never unprepared = He is always prepared. 

10. The word not is sometimes used with but to express 
an affirmative thought in an emphatic manner ; as, 

"He cannot but succeed;" that is, " He is certain to succeed." 

11. The adverbs not and no are corresponsive to 
whether in disjunctive clauses or phrases ; as, 

" We may choose whether we will take the hint or not" — Sheridan. 

"An exclusive line of study has led him, whether he will or no, to 
run counter to the principles of religion." — Cardinal Newman. 

"When English grammarians declare not in this case to be more 
correct than no, they disregard the historical foundation of the use of 
no." — Maetzner, Eng. Gram., iii. p. 140. They also ignore the 
practice of our most classic writers. 

12. An affirmative adverb is sometimes used inde- 
pendently ; as, 

" Certainly, to an enthusiast in behalf of any science whatever, the 
temptation is great to meet an objection against its dignity and 
worth. "—Newman. 

13. The affirmative adverb, when taken absolutely, is 
employed to express a whole sentence ; as, 

"She is all that we can desire." — Exactly. — Trollope. 
" Is not this true? " — " Ay, sir." — Shakespeare. 



208 SYNTAX. 

14. Negative adverbs either form parts of a sentence, 
or, when taken absolutely, represent a whole sentence : 

(1) Parts of a sentence: "Shall I be your play-fellow?" 

"No; I'll none of you." — Shakespeare. 

(2) Represent a whole sentence: "Think you he will re- 
lent?" "Never." 

15. The adverb there is sometimes used to introduce a 
sentence without expressing any relation of place. It is 
then called an expletive ; as, 

" There is a pleasure in the pathless woods, 
There is a rapture on the lonely shore ; 
There is society where none intrudes 
By the deep sea, and music in its roar."— Byron. 

The adverb there, when used as an expletive, generally accompa- 
nies the verb be. 

16. After verbs of motion, the adverbs of place here, 
there, and where, generally assume either of two forms : 

(1) Motion towards a place is expressed by the forms hither, 
thither, whither ; as, 

" For scarce my life with fancy played— 

Still hither thither idly swayed."— Tennyson. 
" Whither I go, you cannot come."— St. John xiv. 33. 

The same motion may also be expressed by the simpler forms here, 
there, and where ; as, 

"Go where duty calls you."— Coleridge. 

" Thou led'st me here perchance to kill."— Btbon. 

"There he led him."— Parnell. 

(2) Motion from a place is expressed by the forms hence, 

whence, and thence ; as, 

"Whence should I have flesh to give unto all this people."— Numb. xi. 3. 
" The good man went into his garden .... to supply another with something he 
wanted thence V— Fielding. 
"Get thee hence.''' 



THE PREPOSITION. 209 

Some writers use the forms from hence, from thence, from whence. 
The word from is tautological. 

"And sailing from thence, the following day we came over against Chios."— Acts 
xx. 15. 

17. The words reason and because should not be used 
together ; as, 

" The reason I ask you to do this, is because you can do it so much 
better than I." 

This sentence should read : " The reason I ask you to do this is that 
you can do it so much better than I." 

" Because Newton was a great mathematician is no reason why he 
should be a great theologian." Read: "That Newton was a great 
mathematician is no reason why he should be a great theologian." 

18. Conjunctions should not be used instead of prepo- 
sitions or other parts of speech ; as, 

" Try and do right," for " Try to do right." 

19. Other parts of speech should not be used instead of 
conjunctions ; as, 

"He reads like his teacher does." This should be, "He reads as 
his teacher does." 

"He looks like me;" not, "He looks like I." Like is a prepo- 
sition in this sentence. 



CHAPTER VIII, 

THE PREPOSITION. 



I. A preposition governs a noun or pronoun in the 
objective case, and expresses a relation between its object 
and some other word, or words, in a sentence. 



210 SYNTAX. 

2. The preposition generally precedes its object ; as, 

" They came to a land in which they could recognize nothing." — 
Macaulay. 

Here in expresses the relation between which and land, and pre- 
cedes its object which. 

3. When a preposition is removed from the pronoun 
which it governs, the pronoun should still have the 
objective form ; as, 

" Whom did you play with; " not, " Who did you play with." 

4. In poetry the preposition is often made to follow 
its object ; as, 

" From peak to peak the rattling crags among." — Byron. 

5. In prose the relative that usually precedes its govern- 
ing preposition ; as, 

Every writer expresses himself most clearly in the language that he 
thinks in. 

6. In all styles of English, the object of a sentence is 
frequently placed before the verb in the sentence, while 
the preposition comes after it ; as, 

" The world he lived in made him and used him." — Newman. 

Here, the expression, " The world he lived in" — " The world 
that he lived in" Such forms have been called inelegant and 
incorrect ; but they are in accord with the genius of our language. 

7. Prepositions should correctly express the relations 
intended. Thus : 

At — in : At is used before the names of houses and villages ; in be- 
fore the names of countries and large cities. In is taken in a broader 
sense. Thus, we say, " He is at a hotel in Washington." 

Again, one may be an expert at surgery, and very expert in dressing 



THE PREPOSITION. 211 

wounds. Here at is used before the noun and in before the active 
participle. 

In — into: In expresses rest; into expresses motion; as, " He went 
into a carriage and rode in it through the park." 

In — of : One is disappointed in a thing obtained, and of a thing not 
obtained. 

From — to: One thing is different from another; not "to another." 

From— after: The artist copies from the model and after his 
master. 

From — with : William differs from James in his whole behavior; 
Thomas differs with John in opinion. 

With — to : One agrees with a person, and to a proposal. One rec- 
onciles an act with one's conscience, and a person to one's opinion. 

We compare one thing with another in regard to quality, and 
one thing to another for the sake of illustration. 

The farmer unites with his neighbor in building a wall ; he 
unites one stone to another with mortar. 

One person may correspond with another ; one thing may cor- 
respond to another. 

With — by : By is used of a conscious agent ; with, when an in- 
strument is implied. The statue was engraved by an artist, and with 
a chisel. 

Between — among : Between is used in respect to two ; among, to 
more than two. A man may divide his property among his four sons ; 
not between them. 

8. A relative clause introduced by what may be the ob- 
ject of a preposition ; as,, 

Place no confidence in what he tells you. Here, the clause, what he 
tells you, is the object of the preposition in. 

9. The preposition of expresses various relations : 

(1) Possession ; as, The crown of the king. 

(2) Relation of part to the whole ; as, The doors of a house. 



212 SYNTAX. 

(3) An attribute ; as, The sweetness of his disposition. 

(4) Reference ; as, The Book of Proverbs. 

(5) Quality ; as, A crown of gold. 

(6) Apposition ; as, The sin of slander; the city o/Utica. 

(7) Objectivity ; as, The love of our neighbor. This does not 
mean our neighbor's love, but love for our neighbor. 

10. Where the preposition for was formerly used with 
the infinitive, it is now omitted ; as, 

"What went ye out for to see ?" — Luke, vii. 26. Omit the word 
for. 

In the older English forms, the expression for to had a meaning of 
destination and purpose. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE CONJUNCTION. 



1. A conjunction connects sentences, or the elements of 
a sentence, between which it is placed : 

(1) Sentences : " While an author is yet living we estimate his 
powers by his worst performances, and when he is dead we 
rate them by his best." — Johnson. 

(2) Elements of a sentence : " The dawn on the mountain was 
misty and gray." — Scott. 

The adjectives misty, gray, which are elements of this sentence, are 
connected by and. 

2. Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words of the same 
form ; for instance,, verbs in the same mood and tense, or 
nouns in the same case ; as, 

" Up rose the sun, and up rose Emily." — Chaucer. 
Oxygen and hydrogen are the elements of water. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 213 

3. Subordinate conjunctions connect dependent phrases 
or clauses with the phrases or clauses on which they de- 
pend ; as, 

" Men may come., and men may go, 
But I go on for ever." — Tennyson. 

4. Correlative conjunctions should always be placed 
nearest the words to which they refer ; as, 

" John the Baptist came neither eating bread nor drinking wine." 

(1) Care should be taken to use the proper correlatives; as, 
" Neither one nor the other has the least chance of success; " 
not i( neither one or the other." 

(2) In like manner, the words than and as cannot be used in- 
differently. Thus, we cannot say correctly, "He is taller, 
but not so old as his brother." This sentence should read: 
" He is taller than his brother, but not so old." 

(3) Do not use but that or but what for that ; other-but for 
other-than ; if for whether. 

5. Conjunctions sometimes introduce a sentence. 

The principal conjunctions introducing a sentence, are and, but, 
that, if, and though. 

Some grammarians object to and and but as introducing sentences; 
but the best writers so employ these words. 

6. Conjunctions are sometimes omitted between words 
or clauses. 

The omission frequently adds life and energy* to the sentence. This 
omission has been admired in the following quotation : 

" Through many a dark and dreary vale 

They passed, and many a region dolorous ; 

O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp, 

Bocks, caves, lakes, fens, logs, dens, and shades of death— 

A universe of death."— Milton. 



214 SYNTAX. 

7. Conjunctions are sometimes repeated between words 

or clauses. 

The repetition renders emphatic the forms before which the con- 
junction is repeated; as, 

" Seasons return ; but not to me returns 
Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn, 
Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, 
Or flock, or herds, or human face divine."— Milton. 

8. Sometimes the conjunction though or if is omitted 
and the verb placed before the subject ; as, 

" Were I a common laugher." — Shakespeare. 

This is equivalent to the form, " If I were a common laugher." 



CHAPTER X. 

THE INTERJECTION. 



1. The interjection has no grammatical relation to the 
other parts of a sentence ; as, 

" then began the tempest to my soul." — Shakespeare. 

2. In expressing a wish, the verb is frequently omitted 
after an interjection ; as, 

" for the touch of a vanished hand, 

And the sound of a voice that is still." — Tennyson. 

" for the touch " = " how I wish for the touch." 

3. When the verb is omitted, that is frequently found 
after the interjection ; as, 

" that the desert were my dwelling-place ! "—Byron. 



IDIOM. 215 

4. When the emotion is one of desire expressed in a 
phrase or sentence, or when the person or thing is ad- 
dressed, the form of exclamation is O ; as, 

" Give judgment, king ! " 

5. When the emotion is apart from any proposition or 
word, and expresses grief, joy, pain, pleasure, and the like, 
the form of exclamation is Oh ! ; as, 

"Oh I deep enchanting prelude to repose." 



CHAPTER XI. 

IDIOM. 



1. Idiom is a form of expression peculiar to the lan- 
guage. 

Many idiomatic forms are apparently irregular, and will not bear 
analysis according to the ordinary rules of syntax. Still these forms 
are of general use, and are understood by every person employing them. 

2. English idiom should not be overlooked, or set 
aside ; nor should its form be changed. 

It is customary to discourage the use of English idiom, and even to 
attempt to change idiomatic expressions to others more regular in 
structure and more easily accounted for. The practice is of a nature 
to do great injury to our language. 

3. Idiom is an essential part of every language. It 
cannot be dispensed with. 

4. Every good writer makes frequent use of idiom. 
All of our literature that is classical abounds in idiomatic 
forms of expression. 



216 SYNTAX. 

5. Idiom strengthens language. 

Idiom moulds an expression into the form that most easily takes 
hold of the popular mind. It gives directness to the expression. 
Directness of expression aids directness of thought. "If men," says 
Coleridge, " would only say what they had to say in plain terms, 
how much more eloquent would they be ! " 

6. Idiom primarily expresses the popular mode of 
thought. 

Idiom is generally a condensed and forcible form of expression. 
The people are not given to reflection and self -analysis. They think 
directly, and are content to use, without reference to grammatical 
propriety, such forms of speech as will express a great deal in a few 
words. 

7. Idiom is not prepared according to preconceived no- 
tions ; nor can it be imposed upon a language at will. 

The scholar and the scientist may invent technical terms to express 
new mechanical inventions or new scientific discoveries ; but they 
cannot impose upon a language new phrases or new idioms. New 
phrases and new idioms are rather the outcome of popular thinking. 

8. Idiom has four distinct sources : 

(i) There are idioms which are remnants of older forms of ex- 
pression that had been used not unfrequently in a differ- 
ent sense in other stages of the language. Thus, we still 
use the expression, " without let or hindrance," even 
though the word let has now a meaning the opposite of 
the word hindrance. But in a previous stage of our 
language let had the same meaning as hindrance. They 
were synonymous. The phrase survived after the primitive 
meaning of the words had passed, and it now belongs to the 
idiom of the language. 

(2) There are idioms which have grown out of what once might 
be considered slang. 



IDIOM. 217 

Every living language has a constant growth of expres- 
sions that are peculiarly appropriate to the sense they would 
convey. They condense whole sentences into a few words, 
and there is no mistaking their meaning. Periodically a 
new growth of such expressions springs up. This perishes to 
give place to another. The slang of London or New York 
twenty years ago is not the slang of those cities to-day. 
But, out of all the slang phrases that appear, an occasional 
expression survives and becomes part of the language, and 
is henceforth to be regarded as idiom. At times it becomes 
current upon the authority of a great writer ; at times it be- 
comes current because of the neatness and accuracy with 
which it expresses what in more regular form would take 
many words. Thus does the slang of one generation become 
the idiom of the next. 

Sometimes the process is reversed, and what was once good 
English idiom, for a time degenerates to slang. Such was 
the fate of the expression hardly ever through its peculiar 
employment by Mr. Gilbert in the popular comic opera, 
Pinafore. 

(3) There are idioms that grow out of special occasions. A 
certain combination of circumstances gives rise to a certain 
expression; it becomes part of popular speech, and long 
after the occasion is forgotten the expression remains as an 
idiom. Thus, the idiom, in the long run, grew out of the 
practice of racing or coursing. Out of the wonderful stories 
told of the two celebrated peers of Charlemagne, Roland 
and Oliver, grew the expression, to give a Roland for an 
Oliver, applied to two persons well matched in argument 
or witticism. 

(4) There are idioms that arise from figurative language, es- 
pecially from analogy with other things. Thus, one who 
makes every effort to attain an object is said to strive tooth 
and nail ; one deeply in debt is said to be over head and 
ears in debt. 



218 IDIOM. 

9. As a rule particular idioms can seldom be traced to 
their source. 

They are deeply-rooted in the language. They begin we know not 
where ; but once they have taken possession of the popular mind they 
become recognized forms of expression. 

10. Many forms of expression, not permitted in good 
writing, are employed in conversation. They are known 
as slang, vulgarisms, and colloquialisms. 

Slang: Every profession and trade has, besides its recognized 
technical language, a certain amount of slang expression. The pupils 
of college and convent have their own peculiar slang. The army, 
the navy, the law, the club-house, has each its respective slang. 

Vulgarisms : Vulgarisms are sometimes identified with slang, but 
they differ in that they originate exclusively with the rude and illiter- 
ate element of society. Many of our purest English idioms are set 
down as vulgarisms. 

Colloquialisms : Colloquialisms are familiar forms of speech always 
permissible in conversation. 

11. Only those idioms that have survived the changes 
of language, should be employed in formal composition. 

12. Idioms are of verbs, of nouns, or of prepositional 
phrases. 

13. Verbal idioms are idioms based upon some peculiar 
construction of the verb, not accounted for by the ordinary 
rules of syntax. Of these are : 

(1) Idioms formed by combining the verb with certain particles : 

By : " Compositions which go by the name of essays." — Addison. 

" Hath God a name to swear by ?" . . . " Hath God a name to curse 
by f" . . . " And hath God no name to pray by f " — Donne. 

For: ''What we earnestly desire we earnestly toil for." — George 
W. Curtis. 



IDIOM. 219 

" I could perceive he was out of humor at being sent for."— Goldsmith. 

" Knowledge must be worked for, studied for, thought for; and 
more than all it must be prayed for." — Arnold, of Rugby. 

In, on, upon : " Houses are made to live in and not to look on." — 
Bacon. 

"I saw her just above the horizon, decorating and cheering the 
elevated sphere she just began to move in." — Burke. 

" The way in which the discoveries of Adam Smith fitted in with 
the great mechanical inventions that were made at the same time is 
too obvious to need dwelling upon." — John Morley. 

At, of: "He was a most satisfactory object, from the thorough 
healthfulness and wholesomeness of his system, and his capacity, at 
that extreme age, to enjoy all, or nearly all, the delights which he had 
ever aimed at, or conceived of." — Hawthorne. 

"It is not by logic, certainly not by logic alone, that the faculty I 
speak of is acquired." — Cardinal Newman. 

About: "I am far from denying that some among them know 
what they are talking about" — Cardinal Newman. 

With : "I was no more than a stripling boy, noting little as boys 
do, except for their present purpose, and even that soon done with." — 
Blackmore. 

Other constructions are frequently preferred to those in which the 
particle ends a sentence ; but they are not always English, whereas 
these forms are good and forcible English. " The false fastidious- 
ness," says Henry Reed, "which shuns a short particle at the end of a 
sentence, is fatal often to a force which belongs to the language in its 
primal character. The superiority of the idioms I am referring to, 
could .be proved beyond question by examples of the best writing in 
all the eras of the language." 

(2) Idioms formed by the verb had : 

Had as lief : " I had as lief not be as live to be 

In awe of such a thing as I myself." — Shakespeare. 
Had rather : " I had much rather be myself the slave, 

And wear the bonds, than fasten them on him." 

— Cowper. 



220 IDIOM. 

Had better: " Some things the State had better leave alone; others 
it had better not." — Matthew Arnold. 

" But if I like the gay equipage so well as to go out of my road, I 
had better have gone afoot." — Emerson. 

(3) Idioms formed by the verb get : 

Get on; "If I get on with this story." — Blackmore. 

Get up : "As the school-boy gets up his Euclid." — Cardinal Newman. 

1 ' Or because he has been getting up a little architecture on the road 
from Florence." — Lowell. 

Get rid of: "To get rid of fools and scoundrels." — Pope. 

Get by heart : "It being harder with him to get one sermon by 
heart than to pen twenty." — Fell. 

(4) Idioms formed by the verb do : 
Do : " Now, this will never do" — Jeffrey. 
Do do : How do you do ? 

The auxiliary do is of different origin from the principal verb do. 
The latter is from the old English dugan — to avail. 

(5) Idioms formed by the verb matter : 

"It matters not at what college it may be celebrated."— George 
Wm. Curtis. 

14. Idioms of nouns are expressions depending upon a 
peculiar sense of the nouns used. Among these may be 
mentioned : 

(1) Idioms formed by the noun matter : 
" What is the matter 1" 

" In the matter of payment." 
4 'There are indeed persons who prefer a different view of the 
matter" — Cardinal Newman. 

(2) Idioms formed by the following nouns expressive of em- 
phatic negation : 

Iota : " They never depart one iota from the authentic formulas of 
tyranny and usurpation." — Burke. 



IDIOM. 221 

Jot : " Neither will they bate one jot of ceremony." — Shakespeare. 
' ' I argue not 
Against Heaven's hand or will, nor bate a jot 
Of heart or hope, but still bear up, and steer 
Right onwards." — Milton. 
Tittle : "Every tittle of this prophecy is most exactly fulfilled." — 
South. 

" 'Till heaven and earth pass, one jot or one tittle shall not pass from 
the law till all be fulfilled.— Matt. v. 18. 

Whit : "Iamwo whit sorry." — Dodsley's Old Plays, ii. 84. 
"A whit more probable." — Hume. 
"So shall I no whit be behind." — Shakespeare. 
Bit: " Your case is not a bit better than it was seven years ago." 
— Arbuthnot. 

15. Idioms formed by prepositional phrases are pecu- 
liar expressions the popular sense of which is distinct from 
the literal sense. The following are of this class : 

To the quick : "lam struck to the quick" — Shakespeare. 
" A tory to the quick. " — Tennyson. 

On all hands: " When we are speaking of what is obvious and 
allowed on all hands." — Cardinal Newman. 

For the nonce : "We do name thee, however, for the nonce." — 
Carlyle. 

In point: " One more remark is in point ." — Newman. 

Of late: " Such of late Columbus found the American." — Milton. 

"Various valuable collections of ancient ballad-poetry have ap- 
peared of late years"— Scott. 

Of mine : ' ' This heart of mine. " There is here question of only 
one heart, and yet, taking the phrase literally, it would seem to imply 
that there was more than one. 

Of it: "A little flower, apprehended in the very plain and leafy 
fact of it." — Ruskin. 

"I think to make a long sleep of it."— Coleridge. 

To it: ''Poor Christian was hard put to it." — Bunyan. 



222 . SYKTAX. 

At all : "If .... he condescends to reflect, whether it has any 
meaning at all," — Cardinal Newman. 

The following phrases are idiomatic: At least; at the least; at 
first; at last ; at all events; at present ; at random; by far ; in vain; 
for good and all; by and by; by the way ; by the by ; little by little; 
step by step; through and through; out and out; heart and soul; 
to all intents and purposes ; root and branch ; neck and crop ; head 
and shoulders ; part and parcel. 

16. The preposition of is used idiomatically for by ; as, 

" This dreaded sight twice seen of us."— Shakespeare. 

"He is loved of the distracted multitude." — Ibid. 

" Well loved of me." — Tennyson. 

" Shall I be tempted of the devil thus ?" — Shakespeare. 

"And was driven of the devil into the wilderness." — Luke viii. 29. 

17. The expletives there is, it is, and the like, are idio- 
matic. 

" There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin." — Campbell. 
"It is I, Hamlet the Dane." — Shakespeare. 

18. The forms methinks, meseems, are idiomatic. 

" Methought my request was heard." — Lamb. 

" Methought that I had broken from the tower." — Shakespeare. 

"I passed, methought, the melancholy flood." — Ibid. 

" Methinks he seems no better than a girl." — Tennyson. 

19. There are certain idiomatic forms of speech which 
are used to emphasize equality of action or purpose. 

Such are : 

Arm in arm : " When arm in arm we went along." — Tennyson. 

Cheek by jowl: "Here was a doctor who never had a patient, 
cheek by jowl with an attorney who never had a client." — Thack- 
eray. 



idiom. 223 

Day by day: "As she spake to Joseph day by day." — Gen. 
xxxix. 10. 

Brow to brow : 

" And frowning brow to brow, ourselves will hear 
Th' accuser and th' accused freely speak. 1 '— Shakespeare. 

Hand in hand : 

M They, hand in hand, with wandering steps, and slow, 
Through Eden took their solitary way. "—Milton. 

Of like import are the forms shoulder to shoulder and face to face. 



PART IV. 
PROSODY. 



CHAPTER I . 

DEFINITIONS. 

1. Prosody treats of the rhythm and harmony of words 
in prose and verse. 

Its object is to determine the mechanical construction of lines in 
poetry and of sentences in higher prose. 

2. Prose is written discourse in which the ordinary ar- 
rangement of words is followed. 

3. The chief object of prose is to convey in a clear and 
forcible manner the author's meaning. 

4. Prose in its highest form may also please and 
move. 

5. Verse is discourse consisting of lines of given length 
written in language metrically arranged. Its chief object 
is to please and to move. 

"The term verse denotes a set of specially related sounds." — 
Sydney Lanier. 

6. Two consecutive verses rhyming are called a coup- 
let ; as, 



DEFIHITIOHS. 225 

" Nor God alone in the still calm we find, 
He mounts the storm, and walks upon the wind." — Pope. 

7. Three consecutive verses rhyming are called a trip- 
let ; as, 

" To search thro' all I felt or saw, 
The springs of life, the depths of awe, 
And reach the law within the law." — Tennyson. 

8. A stanza is a number of lines forming a division of a 
poem. 

The form of the stanza and the character of the metre depend 
upon the nature of the subject and the taste of the writer. Every 
poetical subject has a musical swing which is natural to it, and this 
musical swing determines the form the poem should take. A lyrical 
subject should not be treated in the heroic couplet, nor should a nar- 
rative poem be put in a lyrical dress. The true poet always suits the 
form to the subject. 

9. A stanza usually consists of four, six, seven, eight, 
nine, or fourteen lines : 

(1) A four-lined stanza, or a quatrain: 

" One by one the sands are flowing, 
One by one the moments fall : 
Some are coming, some are going ; 
Do not strive to grasp them all." 

— Adelaide Procter. 

(2) A six-lined stanza, or a sestett: 

" 'Tis not to cry God mercy, or to sit 

And droop, or to confess that thou hast failed ; 
'Tis to bewail the sins thou didst commit, 

And not commit those sins thou hast bewailed. 
He that bewails and not forsakes them, too, 
Confesses rather what he means to do." — Quarles. 



226 PROSODY. 

(3) A seven-lined stanza, called the rhythm-royal : 

" To see sad sights moves more than hear them told; 
For then the eye interprets to the ear 
The heavy motion that it doth behold, 
When every part a part of woe doth bear; 
'Tis but a part of sorrow that we hear: 

Deep sounds make lesser noise than shallow fords, 
And sorrow ebbs, being blown with wind of words." 

— Shakespeare. 

(4) An eight-lined stanza, known as the ottava rima : 

" Then rose from sea to sky the wild farewell, — 

Then shrieked the timid, and stood still the brave, — 

Then some leaped overboard, with dreadful yell, 
As eager to anticipate their grave ; 

And the sea yawned round her like a hell, 

And down she sucked with her the whirling wave, 

Like one who grapples with his enemy, 

And strives to strangle him before he die." — Byron. 

(5) A nine-lined stanza, known as the Spenserian stanza: 

" Last noon beheld them full of lusty life, 
Last eve in Beauty's circle proudly gay, 

The midnight brought the signal sound of strife, 
The morn the marshalling in arms, — the day 

Battle's magnificently-stern array ! 
The thunder-clouds close o'er it, which when rent, 

The earth is covered thick with other clay, . 

Which her own clay shall cover, heap'd and pent, 
Eider and horse — friend, foe — in one red burial blent ! " 

— Byron. 

(6) The stanza of fourteen lines is called a sonnet. The sonnet 
is a complete poem. The sonnet is variously constructed. 
Its normal structure is as follows : 



DEFINITIONS. 



227 



OCTAYE. 



Minor Quatrain. 



Sestett. 



Major Quatrain. 

' 1 

2 

. 2 

1 

1 
2 
2 

1 

3 
4 
3 
4 
5 
5 

. " Count each affliction, whether light or grave, 

God's messenger sent down to thee : do thou 
With courtesy receive him ; rise and bow, 

And ere his shadow pass thy threshold, crave 

Permission first his heavenly feet to lave ; 
Then lay before him all thou hast : allow 
No cloud of passion to usurp thy brow, 

Or mar thy hospitality; no wave 

Of mortal tumult to obliterate 

The soul's marmoreal calmness ; grief should be 

Like joy, majestic, equable, sedate, 

Confirming, cleansing, raising, making free ; 

Strong to consume small trouble, to command 

Great thoughts, grave thoughts, thoughts lasting to the end." 

—Aubrey de Vere. 

The first four lines of the octave are called the major quatrain ; 
the second four, the minor quatrain ; the last six, the sestett. The 
sestett generally expresses the point and purpose of the sonnet. 

10. The sense of sentences in verse or prose is generally 
determined by punctuation. 



228 PEOSODY. 

CHAPTER II. 

PUNCTUATION. 

1. Punctuation is the art of dividing a sentence into 
its component parts by certain marks, or points. 

2. The principal marks of punctuation are : 

The period ( . ) The exclamation ( ! ) 

The colon ( : ) The dash (— ) 

The semicolon ( ; ) The hyphen (-) 

The comma ( , ) The parentheses ( ) 

The interrogation ( ? ) The brackets [ ] 

The quotation points (" ") 

I.— THE PERIOD. 

3. The period is placed at the end of every complete 
sentence ; as, 

" Above all things our Blessed Lord is beautiful in His Mother. 
If we love Him we must love her. We must know her in order to 
know Him." — Faber. 

4. The period is employed to mark abbreviations ; as, 

"A. D., for Anno Domini"; — "pro tern,, for pro tempore"; — 
"ult., for ultimo"; — "inst., for i?istanter, instant"; — "Dr., for Doctor 
or debtor." 

5. The period, in this case, merely indicating the ab- 
breviation, does not take the place of other marks ; as, 

"Baltimore, Md., Jan., 1889." 

6. The period is usually placed after Roman numer- 
als ; as, 



PUNCTUATION. 229 

"Ps. lxv., 2."—"CMlde Harold, III., xxviii."— « Henry of Rich- 
mond, under the name of Henry VII. , began the Tudor dynasty." 

7. Names of persons, familiarly shortened, do not 
require the period ; as, 

" Phil, Ned, and Tom are the names of his brothers." 

8. The period is put after headings and indica- 
tions ; as, 

" Church and State."— " Composition."— " For Sale." 
It is now customary to print titles, page-headings and chapters of 
books without any punctuation mark. 

H.— THE COLON. 

9. The colon is used to introduce a direct quotation 
when referred to by the words thus, follotuing, as folloivs, 
this, these, and the like ; as, 

Shakespeare's words are these : 

" Let all the ends thou aim'st at be thy country's, 
Thy God's, and truth's."— Henry VIII., iii., 2. 

10. The colon is placed after a clause complete in itself, 
but which is followed by some additional remarks or illus- 
trations, especially if no conjunction is used ; as, 

" Study to acquire a habit of thinking : no study is more important." 

"Life is a burden: bear it; 
Life is a duty : dare it ; 
Life is a thorn-crown : wear it." 

— Abeam J. Ryan. 

11. The colon is introduced after a general statement 

followed by two or more specific statements ; as, 

"Three elements enter into history: person, place, and time." 



230 PROSODY. 

12. The colon is placed between the greater divisions 

of a sentence, when minor subdivisions are separated by 
semicolons ; as, 

" We perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but we did 
not see it moving ; we observe that the grass has grown, though it was 
impossible to see it grow: so the advances we make in knowledge, con- 
sisting of minute and gradual steps, are perceivable only after inter- 
vals of time." 

III.— THE SEMICOLON. 

13. The semicolon is used between the similar parts of 
a sentence, when those parts are already subdivided by the 
comma; as, 

" Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, not the web; and 
wit the ornament of the mind, not the furniture." 

14. The semicolon is placed before the clause in a sen- 
tence giving a reason ; as, 

* ' Economy is no disgrace ; for it is better to live on a little than to 
outlive a great deal." 

15. The semicolon is placed between clauses that are 
loosely connected ; as, 

a Bea man; do your duty; let people talk." 

16. The semicolon is placed after the words Yes and 
No, when they begin a sentence ; as, 

"Yes; we have come to stay." 

17. The semicolon is placed before the words as, namely, 
viz., that is, when they introduce an example or a speci- 
fication of particulars ; as, 

" There are six races of men ; namely, the Caucasian, the Mongolian, 
the Malayan, the Australian, the American, and the Ethiopian," 



PUNCTUATION. 231 

IV.— THE COMMA. 

18. The comma is used to separate the similar parts of 
a proposition : subjects, predicates, objects, attributes, ad- 
juncts, phrases : 

1. Subjects. — "Riches, honors, and pleasures are fleeting." 

2. Predicates. — "Religion purifies, fortifies, and tranquilizes the 
mind." 

3. Objects. — "Learn patience, calmness, self-command, disinter- 
estedness." 

4. Attributes. — "Alfred the Great was brave, pious, and patri- 
otic." 

5. Adjuncts. — "The work was neither dexterously, quickly, nor 
well done." 

6. Phrases. — "To be wise in our own eyes, to be wise in the opinion 
of the world, and to be wise in the sight of our Creator, are three 
things so very different as rarely to coincide." 

19. When the subject of a sentence consists of several 
terms, and the last two are not joined by a conjunction, a 
comma is placed before the verb, in order that it may not 
seem to relate to the last subject only ; as, 

"English, French, German, Italian, are the languages most ex- 
tensively used in Europe." 

20. When words are joined in pairs by conjunctions, 
the pairs should be separated by the comma ; as, 

"The rich and the poor, the weak and the strong, have one com- 
mon Father." — "The dying man cares not for pomp or luxury, palace 
or estate, silver or gold." 

21. The name of a person or thing addressed is sepa- 
rated from the rest of the sentence by the comma ; as, 

"My son, give me thy heart." 



232 PEOSODY. 

22. The comma is usually inserted in place of a finite 
verb that is understood ; as, 

" Reading maketh a full man; conference, a ready man; and writ- 
ing, an exact man." — Bacon. 

23. A clause, a phrase, or a word, that breaks the con- 
nection of the sentence, and that can be omitted without 
altering the meaning, must be separated from the rest of 
the sentence by the comma ; as, 

" Industry, which is a law of nature, is a source of happiness." — 
" Man, created in the image of God, has an immortal soul." — "Napo- 
leon, unquestionably, was a man of genius." — " The butterfly, child of 
the summer, flutters in the sun." 

24. A restrictive clause, phrase, or word, immediately 
following the word that it restricts, should not be preceded 
by the comma ; as, 

" The things that are seen, are temporal; but the things that are not 
seen, are eternal." — " The chief misfortunes that befall us in life, may 
be traced to our own vices and follies." 

25. When part of a sentence is transposed, it is 
usually separated from the rest of the sentence by the 
comma ; as, 

" To those who labor, sleep is doubly pleasant." — " Of all our senses, 
sight is the most important." 

26. A short quotation, or one introduced by the verbs 
say, reply y cry, is generally separated from the rest of the 
sentence by the comma ; as, 

"There is much in the proverb, No pains, no gains" — "If wishes 
were horses," says the proverb, " beggars might ride." 



PUNCTUATION. 233 

27. The comma is generally used between the simple 
members of compound sentences, when they are very 
short ; as, 

"Man proposes, but God disposes." 

" We carved not a line, and we raised not a stone, 
But we left him alone with his glory." — C. Wolfe. 

The comma is used after the adverbs nay, indeed, finally, at least, 
however, lastly, and the like ; as, 

"Lastly, he was driven from the city." 
V.— THE INTERROGATION AND EXCLAMATION POINTS. 

28. The point of interrogation is used after every 
interrogative sentence, clause, or word ; as, 

" When shall we three meet again, 
In thunder, lightning, or in rain ?" — Shakespeare. 

29. The exclamation is placed after every exclamatory 
sentence, clause, or word; as, 

" Up, guards, and at 'em ! " 

" And He that doth the ravens feed, 
Yea, providently caters for the sparrow, 
Be comfort to my age ! " 

The point of exclamation should be sparingly used. It is out of 
place in all prose narratives and plain statements. 

VI.— DASH, HYPHEN, PARENTHESIS, BRACKETS, QUOTATION 

POINTS. 

30. The dash is used to mark a sudden interruption or 
transition; as, 

"Here lies the great — false marble where ? 
Nothing but sordid dust lies here. "-7- Young. 



234 PROSODY. 

81 * My pretty boy,' said he, ' has your father a grindstone ? ' — ' Yes, 
sir,' said I. — 'You are a fine little fellow,' said he, 'will you let me 
grind an ax on it ? ' "—Franklin. 

31. The dash is also used: 

1. To set off a parenthetical expression ; as, 

" Lord Marmion returned— well was his need — 
And dashed the roweis in his steed." — Scott. 

2. Before a repetition made for effect or with a view of further 
explanation ; as, " Never is virtue left without sympathy — a sympathy 
dearer and tenderer for the misfortune that has tried it and proved its 
fidelity." 

3. To mark a more considerable pause than the structure of the 
sentence would seem to require ; as, " Now they part — to meet no 
more." 

4. To mark an omission or an unfinished statement; as, " K— g for 
king."— "In the village of C ."—"He is active, but—." 

5. Between a title and the subject-matter and between the sub- 
ject-matter and the author or work ; as, 

" There's a wideness in God's mercy 
Like the wideness of the sea."— Faber. 

32. The hyphen is used: 

1. At the end of a line when part of a word is transferred to the 
next line. 

2. To connect compound words ; as, 

"Then must the pennant-bearer slacken sail."— Byron. 

33. The parenthesis is used to enclose a remark, a 
quotation, or a date, that may be omitted without breaking 
the construction or injuring the sense of the sentence; as, 

" I have seen charity (if charity it may be called) insult with an air 

of pity." 

" Know, then, this truth (enough for man to know): 

Virtue alone is happiness below."— Pope. 



PUNCTUATION. 235 

34. The brackets are used to enclose what one person 
puts into the writings of another, as a correction, an ex- 
planation, or an omission ; as, 

" He [Brownson] wielded a vigorous pen in defence of the Church." 
— "He [the speaker] thought otherwise." — "The letter is dated May 
12th, [1890]." 

35. The quotation points are used to distinguish words 
that are repeated literally from their author ; as, 

When Fenelon's library was on fire, " God he praised" said he, 
" that it is not the dwelling of a poor man." 

Quotation points are also used when the exact words of a book are 
transcribed ; as Cobbett says : " The dash is a cover for ignorance as 
to the use of points." 

36. A quotation within a quotation or an example, is 
usually marked with single points ; as, 

"Patrick Henry said: 'It is natural for man to indulge the illu- 
sions of hope.'" 

37. Other marks are the following : 

1. The index [$W] is occasionally used to point out a passage that 
is strongly emphasized. 

2. Marks of reference are used to direct attention to foot notes. 
They are : 

The asterisk [*] The section [§] 

The dagger [f] The parallels [||] 

The double-dagger [J] The paragraph [U] 

In books recently printed these marks of reference are frequently 
supplanted by the simpler method of figures. 

A line of stars [ * * * ] or dots [ ■ ' • • ] indicates that part of a quo- 
tation is omitted. 



236 PROSODY. 

38. Contractions. — Certain universally recognized con- 
tractions are to be met with in books. The following are 
of most frequent application : 

1. e. g. for exempli gratia = for example's sake, to illustrate. 

2. i. e. for id est = that is to say, to explain. 

3. viz. for videlicet = to wit, to give an instance, or to enumerate 
the parts before referred to generally. 

4. &c. for et cetera = and the rest, and so on, and so forth. This is 
used when it would be considered waste of time to enumerate further 
or quote at greater length. 

5. A for insert. It is called a caret. Cobbett calls it the blunder- 
mark. 

6. The apostrophe [ ' ] is not only used before the possessive s, but 
also to mark contractions or elisions. This latter use is principally 
confined to poetry and to dialect in novels. 



CHAPTER III. 

VERSIFICATION. 



1. Versification is the art of constructing verse. 

2. All verse is written with or without rhyme. 

3. Rhyme is a correspondence of sound in the last 
syllables of two or more lines succeeding each other im- 
mediately or at no great distance ; as, 

" How sleep the brave who sink to rest, 
By all their country's wishes blest ! " — Collins. 



4. Rhymes are : 



Single ; as, wall, fall. 
Double; as, weary, dreary. 
Triple ; as, readily, steadily. 



VERSIFICATION". 237 

5. Rhymes are perfect or allowable. 

6. A perfect rhyme is subject to the following con- 
ditions : 

(1) The vowel sounds should be exactly the same ; as, whole, 
soul, 

(2) The rhyming syllables should be accented ; as, appears, 
her tears. 

(3) The consonants preceding the vowel sounds should be dif- 
ferent ; as, 

" Honor and shame from no condition rise, 
Act well your part, there all the honor lies."— Pope. 

7. An allowable rhyme is one in which the sounds are 
nearly alike ; as, 

" Those hearts of ours — how warm! how warm ! 
Like the sun's bright rays, like the summer's charm? 

— Abram J. Ryan. 

8. Alliteration is the beginning of two or more words 
with the same letter ; as, 

" But see ! 'mid the fast-flashing lightnings of war, 
What steed to the desert flies frantic and far ? " — Campbell. 

Old English metre was based to a great extent upon alliteration. 

9. Verses are classified according to the kind and the 
number of feet they contain. 

10. A foot is the metrical unit by which a line is meas- 
ured. It is composed of two or three syllables, one of which 
is generally accented. 

11. The kind of feet generally used in English verse are : 

(1) The iambus : a short syllable and a long (^ — ), as in awake. 

(2) The trochee : a long syllable and a short (— ^), as in 
hopeless. 



238 PROSODY. 

(3) The anapest : two short syllables and a long (ww — ) ? a s in 
entertain. 

(4) The dactyl : one long syllable and two short (— ^^), as in 
loneliness. 

12. The number of feet varies from one to seven. 

(1) A line of one foot is called a monometer. 

(2) A line of two feet is called a dimeter. 

(3) A line of three feet is called a trimeter. 

(4) A line of four feet is called a tetrameter. 

(5) A line of five feet is called a pentameter. 

(6) A line of six feet is called a hexameter. 

(7) A line of seven feet is called a heptameter. 

13. Verses are deficient, complete, or redundant. 

(1) A verse in which a syllable is wanting, is called cata- 
lectic. 

(2) A verse in which the measure is complete, is called acata- 
lectic. 

(3) A verse in which there is a syllable too much, is called 
hypermetrical. 

14. Iambic verse is commonly used in long English 
poems. It is that metre with which the ear is most 
familiar. It may be divided as follows : 

Monometer: How bright 
The light. 

Dimeter: " Awake and sing, 

And be all wing ! " — Crashaw. 

- - I - - I- - 
Trimeter: "Blow, blow, thou winter wind, 

Thou art not so unkind 

As man's ingratitude." — Shakespeare. 



VERSIFICATION. 239 

- -|v-|v -|v- 

Tetrameter: "The smiles of joy, the tears of woe, 

Deceitful shine, deceitful now." — Moore. 

Tennyson's In Memoriam, portions of Moore's Lalla Rookh, and 
most of Scott's poetry are written in this metre. The tetrameter 
alternating with the trimeter forms the most common measure of 
lyric poetry; as, 



" With gentle swiftness lead me on, 
Dear God ! to see Thy face ; 
And meanwhile in my narrow heart 

Oh make Thyself more space ! " — Faber. 

Pentameter; as, 

" True ease in writing comes from art, not chance, 
As those move easiest who have learned to dance." — Pope. 

Iambic pentameter is called the heroic metre. In its rhymed form 
it is the metre in which Chaucer and Dryden and Pope wrote a great 
deal of their poetry. Pope perfected the iambic pentameter couplet. 
In its unrhymed form, it is the usual metre of blank verse. Milton, 
Wordsworth, Tennyson, and Browning have employed it with great 
power. 

Hexameter: 

" That like a wounded snake drags its slow length along." — Pope. 
This iambic hexameter is called the Alexandrine measure. 

Heptameter: 

" For right is right, since God is God; and right the day must win; 
To doubt would be disloyalty, to falter would be sin." — Faber. 

This metre is generally divided up into four lines, two being iambic 
tetrameters and two iambic trimeters alternately. Stanzas so formed 
are known as common metre stanzas. 



240 PROSODY. 

15. Trochaic verse gives a rapid movement to the line. 
It may be divided as follows : 

Monometer: "Turning, 

Burning." — Addison, — Rosamond, 

- - I — 
Dimeter: "Wishes rising! 

Thoughts surprising ! " — Ibid. 

Trimeter : — w | — ^ | — ^ 
" Go where glory waits thee, 
But while fame elates thee 

Oh ! still remember me."— Moore. 
The last line is in iambic trimeter measure. 

Tetrameter: _^|— ^|~ ^| - ^ 
" Farewell hours that late did measure 
Sunshine days of joy and pleasure." — Burns. 

The tetrameter is the trochaic form most employed in English. 
Longfellow's Hiawatha is in this metre. 

Pentameter: — w| — w| — w|— w| — 
" Then methought I heard a hollow sound 
Gath'ring up from all the lower ground." 

— Tennyson. 

Hexameter: — w | — ^ | — w | — w | — w| — w | 
" Holy, holy, holy! all the Saints adore thee." 

— Heber. 
Heptameter : 

" In the spring a fuller crimson comes upon the robin's breast, 

In the spring the wanton lapwing gets himself another crest." 

— Tennyson. 
These lines are heptameter hypermeter. 

Octometer: 

" Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and weary, 
Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore." — Poe. 



VERSIFICATION. 241 

16. In anapestic verse the accent is placed upon every 
third syllable. It may be divided as follows : 

Monometer: >-* ^ — 
Then again 

Came the rain. 

Dimeter: w w — | ^ w — | _ 

" He is gone on the mountain, . 
He is lost to the forest, 
Like a summer-dried fountain 
When our need was the sorest." — Scott. 
These lines are hypermetrical. 

Trimeter: w w — |^ ^ _ j w ^ — 
" Not a pine in my grove is there seen, 

But with tendrils of woodbine is bound ; 
Not a beech's more beautiful green, 
But a sweet briar twines it around." — Shenstone. 

Tetrameter: ^ ^_| w ^_| ^ ^ _ |^w — | 
" 'Tis the sunset of life gives me mystical lore 
And coming events cast their shadows before." 

— Campbell. 

17. In dactylic verse the accent is placed upon the first 
syllable, the fourth, and so on. It is seldom found un- 
mixed with other meters. 

Monometer: — ^^- 

Fearfully 

Tearfully. 

Dimeter: — ^ w j — ww | 

" Touch her not scornfully, 
Think of her mournfully, 
Gently and humanly." — Hood. 

Trimeter: — ^^| _ ^^ | _ w w | — 

"Merrily, merrily, shall I live now." 

This line is hypermetrical. 



242 PROSODY. 

Tetrameter: — w w |—w w |- — ^ ^ | _ ^ w | 
" Sorely thy little one drags by thee barefooted; 
Cold is the baby that hangs at thy bending back, 
Meagre and livid and screaming for misery." 

— Southey. 
Hexameter: 

_„|_w w I- • I - ~ ~ j - w w| - ~ 

1 ' This is the forest primeval : but where are the hearts that beneath it 
Leap'd like the roe, when he hears in the woodland the voice of the 

huntsman? 
Where is the thatched-roof ed village, the home of Acadian farmers ? " 

— Longfellow. 

The dactylic hexameter was the heroic verse of Greek and Latin 
poetry. Both Homer and Virgil made use of it. In the ancient clas- 
sical poetry a spondee, or two long syllables, could take the place of 
a dactyl, except in the fifth foot, which was usually a dactyl. The 
sixth foot was always a spondee. 

1 8. There are four other species of feet, occasionally to 
be found in verses. They are called secondary feet : 

The spondee : two long syllables, . 

The pyrrhic : two short syllables, ^ ^. 

The amphibrach : a short, a long, and a short syllable, ^ — w. 

The tribrach : three short syllables, ^^^, 

19. Verses are rarely constructed upon any one species 
of measure exclusively. They are generally mixed. 

20. In addition to the usual pauses marked by the punc- 
tuation, there are also the final and the csesural pause. 

(1) The final pause is a slight suspension of the voice at the 
end of each line, even when the grammatical sense does not 
require it. 

(2) The caesural pause is a slight suspension of the voice 
within the line, and generally about the middle of it. This 



VERSIFICATION. 243 

pause is preceded by a syllable more strongly accented than 
any other in the verse ; as, 

"But look | the morn in russet mantle clad." — Shake- 
speare. 
"The quality of mercy | is not strained." — Ibid. 

21. The rhythm of a line depends mainly on the position 
of the caesural pause. 

22. Verse without rhyme is called blank verse ; as, 

" many are the poets that are sown 
By nature, men endowed with highest gifts, 
The vision and the faculty divine ; 
Yet wanting the accomplishment of verse, 
Which, in the docile season of their youth, 
It was denied them to acquire, through lack 
Of culture, and the inspiring aid of books." — Wordsworth. 

23. Blank verse is generally written in iambic penta- 
meter measure. 

24. Blank verse is divided into weak endings and strong 
endings. 

25. Weak endings are those in which the line ends in 
an unaccented syllable ; as, 

" On their sustaining garments not a blemish." — The Tempest, 
Act i. Scene 2. 

26. Strong endings are those in which the metre is 
full and the line ends in an accented syllable ; as, 

"Methinks thou art more honest now than wise." — Timon of 
Athens, Act iv. Scene 1. 

27. The early plays of Shakespeare abound in rhyming 
couplets and strong endings ; his later plays have few 
rhymes and abound in weak endings. 



244 PEOSODY. 

Thus, in Love's Labor's Lost, one of his earliest plays, there are one 
thousand rhyming lines. As he advanced in his art he dropped the 
practice of rhyming. In his latter plays there are few or none. For 
instance, A Winter's Tale is among his latest plays, and has not a 
single rhyming couplet. Again, as the employment of rhyme dimin- 
ished, the use of double or weak endings increased. In Love's Labor's 
Lost there are nine lines with weak endings, while in A Winter's 
Tale there are six hundred and thirty-nine lines. 

This test helps to determine the genuineness and to approximate 
the order of priority of Shakespeare's plays. 



CHAPTER IV. 

RHYTHM IN PROSE. 



1. Rhythm is a recurrence of stress upon certain words 
at intervals more or less regular. 

Rhythm is a series of sounds and silences with primary reference 
to their duration. 

2. Khythm belongs both to prose and to verse. 

Every series of English words, both in prose and verse, is pri- 
marily rhythmical. 

3. The rhythm of verse depends upon accent and 
pause. 

Rhythm in verse is frequently identified with accent ; but it differs 

from accent. Rhythm belongs to words alone ; accent belongs to 

words and syllables. Rhythm includes accent. There may be many 

accents where only a single rhythmic word exists. Thus in the line — 

" The vision and the faculty divine "— 

there are five accents and only two rhythmic words — vision and 
faculty. 



RHYTHM IN PROSE. 245 

4. The rhythm of prose is determined by emphasis 
and pause. 

When the pauses occur at intervals equally apart, or increasing or 
diminishing according to a regular scale, and when the emphatic words 
follow in the same order of regularity, the prose is said to be rhythmic. 
The rhythm of prose is less definite and more subtle than the rhythm 
of verse. But it is none the less a reality. "Prose," says Sydney 
Lanier, "has its rhythms, its tones, and its tone-colors, like verse; 
and while the extreme forms of prose and verse are sufficiently unlike 
each other, there are such near grades of intermediate forms that they 
may be said to run into each other, and any line claiming to be dis- 
tinctive must necessarily be more or less arbitrary." * 

5. Prose rhythm as an art was cultivated in early stages 
of our language. 

It abounds in the sermons and homilies of the tenth and eleventh 
centuries, In the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle we find rhyming prose 
(A. D. 1036). 

In the fourteenth century prose rhythm received great attention. 
It was then called cadence. Thus Chaucer makes the distinction 
between rhyme and cadence : 

M To maken 2 books, songs, and ditties 
In ryme, or else in cadence, 
As those best can." 3 — House op Fame. 

The prose in his Canterbury Tales is written in this rhythmic 
manner. 

6. Prose works intended to be read aloud were rhyth- 
mically arranged. 

The Brethren of the Common Life were experts in transcribing 
books with rhythmic notation. 

Thomas a Kempis, one of their most distinguished members, has 
followed a special system of notation in his Imitation of Christ. This 

1 Science of Verse, p. 57. 2 Maken = make. 3 Can = know. 



246 PROSODY. 

book, on account of its rhythmical notation, was called in his own 
day, a " metrical volume," and later on was known as "ecclesiastical 
music." His system of notation is as follows: 

(i) The period followed by a large capital; 

(2) The period followed by a small capital; 

(3) The colon followed by a small letter; 

(4) The clivis or flexa {lj) used in the musical notation of that 
time. 

These signs are used according to a well-conceived method. " They 
serve in his writings the same purpose as do in music the signs which 
indicate the modulations of the voice; they mark the pauses which the 
reader must observe in order that he may recite the sentence in ac- 
cordance with the intention of the author, and give it that effect, that 
cadence, that charm which speech requires to make it penetrate into 
the hearer's soul." 1 An extract will best illustrate the use of this 
rhythmic notation. We take a passage from Dr. Challoner's English 
version of The Imitation : 

" If all were perfect, what then should we have to bear with from others for the 
love of God ? But now God hath thus ordered it, that we may learn to bear one 
another's burdens ; for no one is without defect, no one without his burden ; no one 
is sufficient for himself, no one is wise enough for himself ; but we must support one 
another, comfort one another, help, instruct, and admonish one another. But the 
measure of each man's virtue is best seen in occasions of adversity. For occasions 
do not make a man frail, but they show what he is." 

According to the notation of Thomas a Kempis, the passage reads 
as follows : 



Si essent omnes perfecti If 
Quid tunc haberemus ab aliis, 

pro Deo pati ? 

Nunc autem Deus sic ordinavit, 



Were all men perfect | 
What would be left for us to bear 
with, I 
one from the other, for God's 
sake ? || 
But now hath God so ordained, 



1 Charles Reulens : Introduction to the fac-simile of the autograph manuscript of 
The Imitation, in the Royal Library of Brussels, p. 13. 



RHYTHM IN PROSE. 



247 



ut discamus alter alterius onera 

portare if 
quia nemo sine defectu, 
nemo sine onere : 
nemo sibi sufficiens, 
nemo sibi satis sapiens i/ 
sed oportet nos invicem portare, 

invicem consolari: 

pariter adjuvare, 

instruere et admonere. 

Quanta? autem virtutis quisque 

fuerit, 
melius patet occasione adversi- 

tatis. 
Occasiones namque hominem fra- 

gilem non faciunt: 
sed qualis sit, 
ostendunt. x 



that we learn each to bear the 

other's burden | 
for no man is without his failings, | 
none without his burden: || 
none self-sufficing, | 
none for himself wise enough. || 
But it behoveth each in turn to 

support the other, | 
to comfort and console : fl 
likewise to help, | 
to instruct and to admonish. || 
But what measure of virtue each 

may have,| 
best appeareth in adversity. || 

Occasion never maketh a man 

frail: || 
but what he is, | 
that it showeth. || 



Lib. I. cap. 16 (Edition of Hirsche, p. 39). 

7 # The rhythm of modern prose has a twofold de- 
pendence : 

(i) Upon the nature of the idea expressed ; 
(2) Upon the mental tone of the speaker or writer expressing 
the idea. 

8. Prose rhythm is an expression of the ever-present 
rhythms of Nature. 

Every atom in Nature has a recurrent motion. Every continuous 
motion or sound is made up of elementary pulsations. Every expres- 
sion of human thought has underlying it, in a manner more or less 

1 The perfect rhythm of the book can only be appreciated in the original Latin 
in which it was written. We cannot make too careful a study of a book so rich in 
spiritual thought and so universal a favorite. 



248 prosody. 

distinct, varying with the force and intensity of the expression, these 
recurrent pulsations. This is what is meant by rhythm. 

9. Ehythm accompanies the sense and meaning of the 
expression as well as the expression itself. 

Where the rhythm exists in an original form of thought, it will be 
found in any translation of that form. The rhythm of the Old Testa- 
ment and the New — especially the solemn music of the Hebrew — is 
found more or less in every translation of the Bible. Men felt the 
rhythmic flow of The Imitation in its weakest translations, long before 
its rhythmic structure was discovered. 

10. The rhythm of nature becomes embodied in language 
whenever the brain of the speaker or writer is at a certain 
tension of emotion caused by some passion. 

"Deeper than all the rhythms of art is the rhythm of nature, for 
the rhythm of nature is the rhythm of life itself. We mean the living 
metre of that energy of the spirit which surges within the bosom 
of him who speaks. Being rhythm, it is of course governed by law 
as surely as the rhythm of art, but it is a law which transcends in 
subtlety the conscious art of the metrecist; a law which, being part of 
nature's own sanctions, can, of course, never be formulated, but only 
expressed — expressed, for instance, in the melody of the bird, in the 
inscrutable harmony of the entire bird-chorus of the thicket, in the 
whispers of the leaves of the trees, and in the songs or wails of the 
winds and seas." — Athenceum, No. 2969. 

11. Every great writer or speaker has a distinct key- 
note running through the rhythm of his composition. 

This follows from the fact that the rhythm is determined both by 
the nature of the subject-matter and the temperament of the speaker 
or writer. Edmund Burke's magnificent passage on Marie Antoinette 
is in a far different key-note from Webster's Bunker Hill speech, or 
John Bright's peroration on the American war, or Macaulay's cele- 
brated eulogy on the Catholic Church. 



RHYTHM IN PROSE. 



249 



12. Ehythmic recurrence varies according to the nature 
of the idea the author would express. 

This may best be illustrated by analyzing some passages according 
to their rhythm. 

I. 



This begins in the natural con- 
versational tone and gently as- 
cends to a more elevated form of 
expression in the last clause. 



Here the poetic glow vibrates 
still more clearly. 



Rhythmic recurrence is here 
apparent: this goodly frame . . . 
this most excellent canopy . . . 
this brave o'er-hanging firma- 
ment . . . this majestical roof. 

Here is the anti-climax giving 
expression to despondency in a 
minor key. 

Here the emotion deepens. 
Every exclamation is heavily 
laden with thought. The form 
is changed in order to avoid 
monotony : how noble . . . how 
infinite . . . inform. Note also 
the double rhythm— form . . . 
moving— express . . . admirable 
—where the construction is 
changed. 



Note the solemn tone in 
which the despondency of Ham- 
let is expressed. 



"I have of late (but wherefore I know 
not) lost all my mirth, | foregone all 
custom of exercises ; || 

and indeed it goes so heavily with my 
disposition, | that this goodly frame, 
the earth, seems to me a sterile prom- 
ontory ; || 

this most excellent canopy, the air, | 

look you, this brave o'er-hanging firma- 
ment, | 

this majestical roof, fretted with golden 
fire — | 

why, it appears no other thing to me, 
but a foul and pestilent congregation 
of vapors. J 

What a piece of work is a man ! || 

How noble in reason ! || 

How infinite in faculty ! | 

in form and moving how express and 
admirable ! || 

in action, how like an angel ! || 

in apprehension, how like a god ! | 

the beauty of the world ! || 

the paragon of animals ! J 

And yet, to me, what is .this quintessence 

of dust ? || 
Man delights not me. — Shakespeare, — 

Hamlet, Act ii, Sc. 2. 



250 



PKOSODY. 



The concluding short sentence contains as many rhythmic words 
as the longer sentence preceding. In the long sentence are the 
three rhythmic words, me, quintessence, dust; in the short, are 
the three words, man, delights, me. 



ii. 



CARDINAL NEWMAN ON MUSIC. 



This is a plain statement, in 
few and simple words, of the 
point the author would develop. 
The rhythm arises from the con- 
trasts mentioned. 



Here the sentences become 
more complex, as the author 
seeks a solution, and replies to 
objections. The rhythm is also 
of a more complex character. 



The author again makes a 
simple statement regarding the 
technicalities of music. 



" There are seven notes in the scale ; || 
make them fourteen ; | 
yet what a slender outfit for so vast an 

enterprise ! || 
What science brings so much out of so 

little?! 
Out of what poor elements does some 

great master in it create his new 

world ! || 

Shall we say that all this exuberant in- 
ventiveness is a mere ingenuity or 
trick of art, | 

like some game or fashion of the day, | 

without reality, | without meaning?! 

We may do so ; || 

and then, perhaps, we shall also account 
the science of theology to be a matter 
of words ; || 

yet, as there is a divinity in the theology 
of the Church | which those who feel 
cannot communicate, || 

so is there also | in the wonderful cre- 
ation of sublimity and beauty | of 
which I am speaking. || 

To many men the very names which the 
'science employs are utterly incompre- 
hensible. [ 



EHXTHil IN PROSE. 



251 



Note how well balanced these 
two clauses are. 

The author wishes to say that 
we cannot speak of musical com- 
position as we would speak of 
literary composition. 



Here the author's language 
glows. Note the balauce of 
every rhythmic phrase and the 
music of the whole. 



Here note the variety in length, 
in these phrases or clauses, the 
recurrence of expressions, the 
effect of the repetition of the 
word and, and the regularity of 
rhythmic words in each phrase 
or clause. 



To speak of an idea or a subject seems 

to be fanciful or trifling, | 
to speak of the views which it opens 

upon us to be childish extravagance ; | 

r yet is it possible that that inexhaustible 
evolution and disposition of notes, | 

so rich yet so simple, \ 

so intricate yet so regulated, \ 

so various yet so majestic, || 

should be a mere sound, which is gone 
and perishes ? || 

Can it be that those mysterions stirrings 
of heart, || 

and keen emotions, \ 

and strange yearnings after we know 
not what, || 

and awful impressions from we know not 
whence, || 

should be wrought in us by what is un- 
substantial, | 

and comes and goes, | 

and begins | and ends | in itself ? || 



Note the perfect balance 
these two solemn denials. 



of fl 



Read and re-read this sentence. 
It is a magnificent outburst of 
eloquence. And yet, the speaker, 
while his soul is vibrating in 
rhythmic harmony with his sub- 



It is not so ; \ 
I it cannot be. || 

No; || 

they have escaped from some higher 

sphere ; | 
they are the outpourings of eternal 

harmony | in the medium of created 

sound ; | 
they are echoes from our Home ; || 
they are the voice of Angels, || 
or the Magnificat of Saints, fl 



252 



PROSODY. 



' or the living laws of Divine governance, || 
or the Divine attributes; || 
something are they besides themselves, | 
which we cannot compass, | 
which we cannot utter, — J 
— though mortal man, | and he perhaps 
not otherwise distinguished above his 
fellows, | has the gift of eliciting them. 
—Oxford University Sermons, pp. 346, 347. 

EXTRACTS FOR RHYTHMIC ANALYSIS. 



ject, holds in check his imagina- 
tion and nses only simple words. 

The whole passage is one of h 
the most beautiful in the English 
language. 



AMBITION AND DEATH. 

eloquent, just, and mighty death ! whom none c6uld advise, thou 
hast persuaded ; what none hath dared, thou hast done ; and whom all 
the world hath flattered, thou only hast cast out of the world and de- 
spised; thou hast drawn together all the far-stretched greatness, all 
the pride, cruelty, and ambition of man, and covered it all over with 
these two narrow words, Hie jacet ! l — Sir Walter Raleigh — History 

of the World. 

ii. 

THE EVERLASTING CHURCH. 

There is not, and there never was on this earth, a work of human 
policy 2 so well deserving of examination as the Roman Catholic 
Church. The history of that Church joins together the two great ages 
of human civilization. No other institution is left standing which 
carries the mind back to the times when the smoke of sacrifice rose 
from the Pantheon, and when camelopards and tigers bounded in the 
Flavian amphitheatre. The proudest royal houses are but of yester- 
day when compared with the line of the Supreme Pontiffs. That line 
we trace back, in an unbroken series, from the Pope who crowned 

1 Hie jacet = here lies, the words with which it was customary to begin epitaphs 
on tombstones. 

2 Macaulay, not being a Catholic, regarded the Church as a purely human insti- 
tution. The Church is divine iu her origin and her teaching. 



KHYTHM IN PKOSE. 253 

Napoleon in the nineteenth century, to the Pope who crowned Pepin 
in the eighth ; and far beyond the time of Pepin the august dynasty 
extends. . . . The republic of Venice came next in antiquity. But 
the republic of Venice was modern when compared with the Papacy ; 
and the republic of Venice is gone, and the Papacy remains. The 
Papacy remains, 1 not in decay, not a mere antique, but full of life 
and useful vigor. The Catholic Church is still sending forth to the 
farthest ends of the world, missionaries as zealous as those who landed 
in Kent with Augustin, and still confronting hostile kings with the 
same spirit with which she confronted Attila. The number of her 
children is greater than in any former age. Her acquisitions in the 
New World have more than compensated her for what she has lost in 
the Old. Her spiritual ascendancy extends over the vast countries 
which lie between the plains of Missouri and Cape Horn; countries 
which, a century hence, may not improbably contain a population as 
large as that which now inhabits Europe. The members of her com- 
munion are certainly not fewer than one hundred and fifty millions. 2 
. . . Nor do we see any sign which indicates that the term of her 
long dominion is approaching. She saw the commencement of all the 
governments and of all the ecclesiastical establishments that now exist 
in the world, and we feel no assurance that she is not destined to see 
the end of them all. She was great and respected before the Saxon 
had set foot on Britain, before the Frank had passed the Rhine, when 
Grecian eloquence still flourished in Antioch, when idols were still 
worshipped in the temple of Mecca. And she may still exist in un- 
diminished vigor, when some traveller from New Zealand shall, in the 
midst of a vast solitude, take his stand on a broken arch of London 
Bridge, to sketch the ruins of St. Paul's. 

ni. 

CIVILIZING INFLUENCE OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN MARY. 

For the first time woman was elevated to her rightful position, 
and the sanctity of weakness was recognized as well as the sanctity of 

1 Note the effect with which these words, the Papacy remains, are repeated. 

2 At present they are estimated at over two hundred and seventy-five millions. 



254 PROSODY. 

sorrow. No longer the slave or toy of man, no longer associated only 
with ideas of degradation and of sensuality, woman rose in the person 
of the Virgin mother into a new sphere, and became the object of a 
reverential homage of which antiquity had had no conception. Love 
was idealized. The moral charm and beauty of female excellence was 
for the first time felt. A new type of character was called into being ; 
a new kind of admiration was fostered. Into a harsh and ignorant 
and benighted age, this ideal type infused a conception of gentleness 
and of purity unknown to the proudest civilizations of the past. In 
the pages of living tenderness which many a monkish writer has left in 
honor of his celestial patron; in the millions who, in many lands and 
in many ages, have sought with no barren desire to mould their char- 
acters into her image ; in those holy maidens who for the love of Mary 
have separated themselves from all the glories and pleasures of the 
world, to seek in fastings and« vigils and humble charity to render 
themselves worthy of her benediction ; in the new sense of honor, in 
the chivalrous respect, in the softening of manners, in the refinement 
of tastes displayed in all the walks of society ; in these and many other 
ways we detect its influence. All that was best in Europe clustered 
around it, and it is the origin of many of the purest elements of our 
civilization. — Lecky. 



INDEX 



{The numbers refer to the pages.} 



A or an, 143. 

About, 144. 

Above, 144. 

Absence of limitations, 75. 

Acatalectic verse, 238. 

Accent, 10. 

Active voice, 77. 

Adieu, 144. 

Adjective, defined, 12. 

classes of, 34, 35. 
comparison of, 39. 
its modifiers, 59. 
syntax of, 197-204. 
Adjective adjunct, 5&. 
clause, 153. 
phrase, 57. 
Adjuncts, 55. 
Adverb, defined, 13. 

its modifiers, 59. 
how formed, 123. 
classification of, 124-127. 
modification of, 127-129. 
functions of, 129. 
syntax of, 197-204. 
Adverbial adjunct, 55. 
clause, 153. 

its functions, 154. 
phrase, 57, 124. 
Addison, 133, 199, 218, 240. 
After, 144. 

Affirmative conjugation, 83. 
Agreement, 165. 
All, 144. 

Alliteration, 237. 
Allowable rhyme, 237. 
Amphibrach, 244. 
Analysis, 51, 151. 
Anapest, 238. 



Anapaestic verse, 241. 
Antecedent, 45. 
Any, 144. 
Apostrophe, 236. 
Apposition, 166. 
Arnold, Matthew, 220. 
Arnold, of Rugby, 219. 
Article, defined, 12. 

classes of, 34, 35. 

syntax of, 19&-197. 
As, 144. 
Asterisk, 235. 
Attribute, defined, 54. 

what it may be, 54, 55. 
Aubrey de Vere, 227. 
Auxiliary verb, 82. 

Bacon, 133, 198, 202, 232. 

Beaumont and Fletcher, 150. 

Be, conjugated, 88. 

Behave, 107. 

Before, 145. 

Better, 41. 

Beware, 114. 

Blackmore, 220. 

Blank verse, 243. 

Blow, 108. 

Brackets, 235. 

Bret Harte, 142. 

Brethren of the Common Life, 245. 

Browning, 73. 

Bryant, 182. 

Built, 113. 

Burke, 193, 194, 203, 219, 220. 

Burns, 93, 240. 

But, 145. 

By, 146. 

Byron, 27, 113, 167, 208, 210, 214, 226. 



256 



IKDEX. 



Cadence, 245. 

Caesural pause, 242. 

Campbell, 135, 187, 192, 204, 222, 237, 

241. 
Capitals, rules for, 6, 7. 
Carlyle, 115, 221. 
Cases, 28. 

Catalectic verse, 238. 
Change of form in tenses, 80. 
Channing, 167, 168, 184. 
Chapman, 205. 

Chaucer, 171, 188, 195, 212, 245. 
Child, Lydia Maria, 142. 
Clause, 151. 
Clomb, 113. 
Cobbett, 235. 
Coleridge, 81, 166, 167, 178, 193, 194, 197, 

208, 221. 
Collier, 133. 
Colon, 229. 
Comma, 231. 
Common adjective, 36. 
noun, 15, 16. 
Common metre, 239. 
Comparative degree, 39. 
Comparison, of adjectives, 39. 

degrees of, 39, 

regular, 39. 

by adverbs, 39. 

of adverbs, 127, 128. 
Complex sentence, 151, 152. 
Compound personal pronouns, 44. 
relative pronouns, 47. 
Compound sentence, 152. 
Compound word, 10. 
Connection, relations of, 165. 
Conjunction, denned, 13. 

classification of, 135-138. 
syntax of, 213. 
Consonants, 4. 
Contractions, 236. 
Co-ordinate conjunction, 212. 
Correlative conjunction, 213. 
Correct pronunciation, 10. 
Couplet, 224. 
Cowper, 11, 166, 186, 219. 
Crabbe, 202. 

Crawford, F. Marion, 130. 
Curtis, George W., 218, 220. 

Dactyl, 238. 

Dactylic hexameter, 242. 

Dagger, 235. 



Dash, 233. 

Declarative sentence, 51. 

Declension, 31. 

Defective verb, 82, 114. 

Demonstrative pronoun, 47. 

Dentals, 3. 

Derivative word, 10. 

Dependent clause, 151. 

De Quincey, 203. 

Dickens, 27, 167, 175, 186. 

Dimeter, 238. 

Diminution, degrees of, 40. 

Diphthongs, 4. 

Direct affirmative form, 83. 

Dissyllable, 9. 

Donne, 218. 

Double-dagger, 235. 

Dryden, 132, 146, 174, 188, 194. 

Durst, 116. 

Dwight, J. S., 54. 

Eat, 108. 

Elementary forms of language, 1. 

Eliot, George, 133. 

Ellipsis, 166. 

Else, 146. 

Emerson, 113, 220. 

Etymology, defined, 1. 
its ofl&ce, 12. 

Except, 146. 

Exclamation point, 233. 

Exclamatory sentence, 52. 

Explanatory adjuncts, 56. 
clause, 154. 
phrase, 57. 

Exercises : In parsing, 14 ; in nouns, 16, 
17 ; in formation of plural, 22-25 ; in 
genders, 28 ; in cases, 31-34 ; on the 
article, 35 ; in adjectives, 36-39 ; in 
comparison, 42, 43 ; in pronouns, 48-51 ; 
in analysis, 60-67 ; in sentence-build- 
ing, 67-74 ; in verbs, 101-107, 117-119; 
in the infinitive, 120, 121 ; in participles, 
122, 123 ; in adverbs, 130, 131 ; in prepo- 
sitions, 135 ; in conjunctions, 135 ; in 
interjections, 141-143 ; in analysis, 
156-158 ; in sentence-building, 163, 164. 

Faber, 157, 234, 239. 
Fielding, 208. 
Final pause, 242. 
Finite forms, 76. 
Fitz-Greene Halleck, 158. 



INDEX. 



257 



Foot (poetic), 237. 
For, 147. 

former use of, 212. 
Ford, 146. 

Forms of conjugation, 83. 
Franklin, 133, 234. 
Freeman, 104. 
Full, 147. 
Fuller, 146. 

Future perfect tense, 80. 
Future tense, 80. 

Grammatical subject, 52. 
Gray, 185, 202. 
Gutturals, 3. 
Gender, denned, 25. 

how distinguished, 26, 27. 

how distinguished in Old Eng- 
lish, 27. 
Gladstone, 198. 
Goldsmith, 150, 176, 196. 
Government, 165. 
Grammar, 1, 2. 

Cardinal Newman on, 2. 

Have, conjugation of, 85 
Hawthorne, 219. 
Hazlitt, 149. 
Heber, 240. 
Heptameter, 238. 
Heroic metre, 239. 
Hexameter, 238. 
Heywood, 188. 
Holland, 101. 
Hood, 54, 142, 241. 
Hume, 221. 
Bung, 113. 

Hypermetrical verse, 238. 
Hyphen, 234. 

Iambus, 237. 

Iambic pentameter, 243. 

Iambic verse, 238. 

Idioms, 218-221. 

If, 214, 215. 

1U, 147. 

Imperative mood, 99. 

sentence, 51-53. 
Imperfect participle, 75. 

tense, 80. 
Impersonal verbs, 77. 
Independent clause, 151. 
phrase, 57. 



Indicative mood, 78, 98. 
Interrogative conjugation, 84. 
pronoun, 47, 48. 
sentence, 52. 
Interjection, defined, 13, 140. 
lists of, 140, 141. 
syntax of, 165. 
Intransitive verb, defined, 76. 
Irregular verbs, denned, 76. 

principal parts, 107. 
Irving, 55, 103, 176, 177. 
Infinitive forms, 75. 
mood, 99. 
forms of, 119. 
phrases, 119. 
Italics, rules for, 8, 9. 

Jeffrey, 220. 
Johnson, 178, 212. 
Jonson, Ben, 132. 
Junius, 185. 

Keats, 177. 
Kingsley, 79. 

Labials, 3. 

Lade, 109. 

Lamb, 222. 

Langland, 48. 

Language, 1. 

Lanier, Sydney, 224. 

Late, last, latter, later, latest, 40. 

Lecky, 253. 

Letters, 3-7. 

Less, 41. 

Men, 109. 

Mke, 147. 

Lingard, 105. 

Logical subject, 52. 

Longfellow, 28, 72, 73, 167, 172, 177, 179, 

189, 197, 198, 220, 242. 
Losen, lorn, 111. 
Love, conjugated, 90. 
Lowell, 33, 74, 158. 

Macaulat, 134, 188, 189, 198, 199, 204,210. 

Maetzner, 207. 

Marsh, George P., 202. 

Masson, 181. 

MethinJcs, 77. 

Milton, 48, 109, 113, 132, 133, 134, 167, 177, 

188, 194, 203, 204, 213, 214, 221, 223. 
Mixed verse, 242. 



258 



INDEX. 



Models in analysis, 155, 156. 
Monometer, 238. 
Monosyllable, 9. 
Mood, 78. 
Moore, 198, 240. 
Morley, John, 219. 
Morris, George P., 152. 
Much, 41. 
Mun, 82. 
Must, 82, 116. 

Nasals, 3. 
Near, 41. 
Need, 117. 
Needs, 148. 

Negative form of a verb, 84. 
imperative, 85. 
interrogative, 85. 
Nelson, 202. 

Newman, Cardinal, 2, 8, 53, 69, 73,117, 
172, 205, 207, 210, 219, 220, 221, 222, 250. 
NU, 82, 115. 
Nominative case, 29. 
Noun, defined, 12. 

classes of, 15. 
its modifiers, 58. 
syntax of, 179-182. 
Now, 148. 
Number, 18-21. 

in verbs, 81. 
of feet, 238. 
Numeral adjectives, 36. 

Objective case, 30. 
Object of a sentence, 53. 
Organs of speech, 3. 
Orthography, 1-3. 
Ottava rima, 226. 
Ought, 115. 

Palataxs, 3. 
Paley, 204. 
Paragraph, 235. 
Parallels, 235. 
Parenthesis, 234. 
Parnell, 242. 
Parsing, 13. 
Participles, defined, 121. 

object of, 53. 

modifiers of, 59. 

forms of, 121. 

used as prepositions, 122. 
Participial adjective, 36. 



Participial infinitive, 122. 
Parts of speech, 12. 
Passive voice, 77, 78. 
Pentameter, 238. 
Period, 228. 

Perfect infinitive, 119, 120. 
tense, 80. 
rhyme, i37. 
Persons, 18 ; in verbs, 81. 
Personal pronouns, 43, 44. 
Personification, 27. 
Phrase, definition, 56. 

classes of, 56-58. 
Piers Plowman, Vision of, 150. 
Pleonasm, 166. 
Pluperfect tense, 80. 
Poe, Edgar Allan, 116, 240. 
Polysyllable, 9. 

Pope. 11, 133, 149, 166, 167, 171, 176, 179, 
182, 184, 188, 193, 197, 205, 220, 224, 234, 
239. 
Positive degree, 39. 
Possessive case, 30. 
Potential mood, 78, 98. 
Predicate, defined, 53. 

grammatical, 53. 
compound, 53. 
Prefix, 10. 

Preperfect participle, 122. 
Preposition, defined, 13, 131. 

object of, 53. 

functions, 131. 

lists of, 132-134. 

syntax of, 209. 
Present tense, 80. 
Primary adjuncts, 56. 
Primitive word, 10. 
Principal words, 58. 
Principal proposition, 151. 
Procter, Adelaide, 225. 
Pronominal adjective, 36. 
Pronoun, defined, 12, 43. 
classes of, 43. 
syntax of, 182-193. 
Pronunciation, correct, 10. 
Proper nouns, 15. 

adjectives, 36. 
Prose, 224. 
Prosody, 224. 
Punctuation, 228-236. 

Quakles, 225. 
Quatrain, 225. 



INDEX. 



259 



Quotation, 235. 
Quoth, 115. 

Regular verbs, 76. 
Relations, of agreement, 165. 

of government, 165. 

of connection, 165. 
Relative pronoun, 45. 

its syntax, 188. 
Robert of Brunne, 206. 
Rome, 11. 

Robinson Crusoe, 71. 
Root-infinitive, 75. 
Rhyme, 236, 237. 
Rhythm in prose, 244-254. 

in verse, 244. 
Rhythms of nature, 247-251. 

Save, 148. 

Scott, 54, 116, 167, 173, 174, 185, 189, 203, 
212, 221, 234, 241. 

Sea, 11. 

Secondary feet, 42. 

adjuncts, 56. 

Section, 235. 

Self, 44. 

Sentence, defined, 13. 

classes as to meaning, 51. 
classes as to form, 151. 
-building, 67-74; 158-163. 

Sestett, 225. 

Shakespeare, 11, 41, 46, 51, 52, 74, 78, 109, 
115, 132, 133, 134, 143, 166, 167, 172, 173, 
174, 176, 179, 183, 184, 190, 192, 195, 199, 
200, 204, 206, 207, 210, 219, 221, 222, 223, 
226, 229, 233, 238, 243, 249. 

Shakespeare's Plays, 243 ; note on, 244. 

Shelley, 166, 191, 197. 

Shenstone, 241. 

Sheridan, 207. 

Shook, 109. 

Shope, 113. 

Sibilants, 4. 

Sidney, 133, 148. 

Simple sentence, 52, 151. 

personal pronouns, 44, 45. 
subject, 51. 

Smote, 109. 

So, 148. 

Sonnet, 226, 227. 

Southey, 182, 242. 

Spelling, correct, 11. 

Spenser, 111, 116. 



Spenserian stanza, 226. 
Spondee, 242. 
Stanza, 225. 
Strong endings, 243. 
Strong verbs, 107. 
Study, conjugated, 96. 
Subject, 52, 166-170. 
Subjunctive mood, 79, 98, 99. 
Subordinate proposition, 151. 
Substantive phrase, 56, 57. 

clause, 152. 
Suffix, 10. 

Swetchine, Madam, 167. 
Swift, 142, 183, 188, 189. 
Syllable, 9. 
Syntax, 1, 165. 

Tatler, 134. 

Taylor, 121. 

Tea, 10. 

Temple, Sir W., 134, 195. 

Tennyson, 30, 73, 79, 133, 167, 179, 182, 

191, 200, 208, 213, 214, 221, 222, 225, 

240. 
Tense, 80. 
Tetrameter, 238. 
Thackeray, 187, 195, 222. 
That, 45, 47. 
The, 149. 
This, 47. 

Thomas a Kempis, 245. 
Thou, 53. 
Though, 214. 
Thomson, 183. 
Till, 149. 

Transitive verb, 54, 76. 
Tribrach, 242. 
Trimeter, 238. 
Triplet, 225. 
Trisyllable, 9. 
Trochaic verse, 240. 
Trochee, 237. 
Trollope, 207. 

Unipersonal verb, 76. 

Verb, defined, 13. 

its modifiers, 59, 74. 
classification as to form, 75, 76. 
classification as to meaning, 76. 
modifications of, 77. 
principal parts of, 81. 
conjugation of, 82. 



260 



INDEX. 



Verb, agreement of, 166. 

syntax of, 170. 
Verbal nouns, 120, 121. 
Verse, 224. 
Versification, 236. 
Vocal sounds, 3. 
Voice, 77. 
Vowels, 4. 

W, when a consonant, 5. 

Weak verbs, 107. 

Welcome, 107. 

Well, 149. 

Went, 109. 

What, 45, 46, 47. 

Whately, 178. 

Where and its compounds, 46. 

Whether, 48. 



Which, 45, 46, 47. 

While, 150. 

Whittier, 55, 84, 142. 

Who, 45, 46, 47. 

Will, 82. 

Willy nitty, 115. 

Wit % 116. 

Wcl, 115. 

Wolfe, 175, 233. 

Worit, 115. 

Words, 1, 5, 9, 10, 143. 

Wordsworth, 164, 167, 175, 190, 243. 

Worth, 114, 150. 

Would, 115. 

Ymade, 150. 

Yon, yond, yonder \ 150. 

Young, 167, 233. 



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